Gender Equity

In the past decade, there has been a large decline in female labour force participation from 34% to 27%. The male-female wage gap has been stagnant at 50% (a recent survey finds a 27% gender pay gap in white-collar jobs). Crimes against women show an upward trend, in particular brutal crimes such as rapes, dowry deaths, and honour killings. These trends are disturbing, as a natural prediction would be that, with optimal growth, come education and prosperity; and a possible decline in adherence to traditional institutions and socially prescribed gender roles that hold women back.

Recent Developments

Gender Bias Caused High Death Rate

  • According to a study in the online, open access, peer-reviewed journal Lancet Global Health, there have been 2,39,000 “excess deaths” per year of girls under the age of five in India, and 29 out of 35 States contributed to this mortality. That works out to about 2.4 million deaths in a decade, and the additional deaths were found in 90% of districts in the country. Some of the key findings are -
    • More than 90% of the districts had access female mortality (under 5 mortality rate), but U.P., Bihar, Rajasthan and M.P, accounted for two-thirds of the total.
    • 29 of 35 states/UTs were affected by a significant amount of excess mortality
    • All states and UTs include at least one district with excess female mortality in childhood.
    • The highest rates of U5 MR were recorded in northern India
    • The mean amount of excess female under-5 mortality exceeds 20 per 1,000 livebirths in eight out of 35 States and Union Territories.
  • Gender Bias: Around 22% of the overall mortality burden of under-five females is due to gender bias. Many deaths of females under five are partly due to unwanted child bearing and subsequent neglect. Higher levels of female literacy and employment in more modern industries is linked to lower levels of excess mortality in females under five. The sustained fertility declines currently observed in north India is likely to lead to a reduction in postnatal discrimination.
  • Rural Urban Divide: The worst affected areas are all rural, agricultural areas with lower levels of education, high population densities, low socio-economic development and high levels of fertility. The researchers say that many deaths of females under five are partly down to unwanted child bearing and subsequent neglect.
  • Regional Distribution: The problem is most pronounced in northern India, where the four largest states in the region, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh, account for two thirds of the total excess deaths of females under five.

Gender Gap in Banking

  • The World Bank recently published the results of its Global Findex Survey (2017), the third in the series from 2011. Findex surveys provide valuable information on financial inclusion and behaviours across countries.
    • 80% Indian adults now have a bank account—27 points higher than the 53% estimated in Findex 2014 round, which showed 17 points addition to the 2011measure (35%).
    • The male-female difference, or the gender gap, in account ownership narrowed to 6.4 percentage points in 2017; it was 19.8 in 2014.
    • However, bank account is the gateway to other financial services, but doesn’t automatically translate into actual use of or access to these.
  • The Gap is More Telling for Females: This gap in access and usage is even more telling for females, where evidence indicates inclusion policies providing entry to formal finance fail to bridge gender inequalities, for which specific, broader intervention efforts are needed.

Recent Challenges in Women Migration

  • A recent UN report says India is on the “brink of an urban revolution”, as its population in towns and cities are expected to reach 600 million by 2031. Fueled by migration, megacities of India (Delhi, Mumbai and Kolkata) will be among the largest urban concentrations in the world. Interestingly, the 2011 Census reveals that women form almost 80 per cent of internal migration.
  • Cause of Women Migration: Although marriage-induced migration or associated migration continues to be the predominant reason for the overwhelming presence of women among migrants, its importance has declined post liberalization as export-oriented economic development has created demand for women labour.

Problem in Migration Trends

  • Data not Adequate
  • Female Exclusion and Women Migrant, as seen as dual Problem
  • Discrimination in the work force
  • Occupational Health Hazards
  • Problems in Gaining Financial Services
  • Exclusion from Urban Development Policies

Gender Equity and Equality

Gender Equity is the process of allocating resources, programs, and decision making fairly to both males and females without any discrimination on the basis of sex; and addressing any imbalances in the benefits available to males and females.

In contrast to equity, gender equality is the process of allocating resources, programs and decision making so that males and females have the same (therefore females and males would each receive 50% of the resources, facilities, and each have access to the same programs, e.g. if there was a male program, there would also be a female program). While the goal of treating everyone the same may seem noble, the principle of equal treatment tends to ignore the fact that people differ in their capacities, interests, resources and experiences.

Gender Unequal India

According to the 2011 census, women account for 586.47 million in absolute numbers and represent 48.46% of the total population of the country.

Indicators

Female (% net)

Male (% net)

2000

2016

2000

2016

School enrollment (Primary)

72.8

86.2

School enrollment (Tertiary)

7.5

27.0

11.4

26.9

Life Expectancy at Birth

63.4

70.2

61.8

67.1

Mortality Rate, under 5

96.6

87.0

Adolescent Fertility Rate (births per 1,000 women ages 15-19)

66.8

24.5

Adolescent Fertility Rate (births per 1,000 women ages 15-19)

66.8

24.5

Fertility Rate-total (births per woman)

3.3

2.3

Employment in Agriculture

74.1

56.9

54.0

39.1

Unemployment

4.2

4.2

4.4

3.3

At present, according to UN report

  • The under-five mortality of the girl child is 2.5 per cent higher (40 deaths per 1,000 live births) than the under-five mortality of the boy child (39 deaths per 1,000 live births). This gender gap has reduced significantly given that the difference was nearly 10 per cent in 2012. Globally, girl child survival rates are 11 per cent higher than boys.

Programme and Schematic Intervention

  • Integrated Child Protection Scheme (implemented in 2009) is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme aimed at building a protective environment for children in difficult circumstances, as well as other vulnerable children, through Government-Civil Society Partnership.
  • Indira Gandhi Matritva Sahyog Yojana (in 2010), is Conditional Maternity Benefit (CMB) is a scheme sponsored by the national government for pregnant and lactating women age 19 and over for their first two live births.
  • Janani Suraksha Yojana (2005), aims to decrease the neo-natal and maternal deaths happening in the country by promoting institutional delivery of babies.
  • Sabla (2012) scheme aims at the empowerment of adolescent girls in the age group of 11-18 years.
  • Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (2000) and Rashtriya Madhayamik Siksha Abhiyan (2009) schemes are being implemented to universalise elementary and secondary education respectively, have a strong focus on improving enrolment and retention of girls.
  • Support to Training & Employment programme for Women- STEP (since 1986-87) scheme aims to ensure sustainable employment and income generation for marginalized and asset-less rural and urban women.
  • Ujjawala (2007) scheme aimed at prevention of trafficking and at providing support for rescue, rehabilitation, reintegration and repatriation of victims of trafficking for commercial sexual exploitation. The Scheme is being implemented mainly through NGOs.
  • Swadhar Greh (2002) scheme is catering to the needs of women in distress.
  • The Union Budget in 2013 made provision for a corpus called Nirbhaya Fund. This is to support initiatives towards protecting the dignity and ensuring safety of women in India. The fund is administered by Ministry of Finance.
  • The Government of India initiative named as Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao (BBBP launched in 2015) for survival, protection & education of girl child. The programme aims to address the issue of decline in Child Sex Ratio (CSR) through a mass campaign across the country targeted at changing societal mindset and creating awareness about the criticality of the issue, and focussed intervention & multi-sectoral action in 100 districts with low CSR. While the overall goal of the programme is to “Celebrate the Girl Child & Enable her Education”, the objectives would be to
    1. Prevent gender biased sex selective elimination;
    2. Ensure survival & protection of the girl child and
    3. Ensure education of the girl child.

Global Gender Gap Report 2018

The Global Gender Gap Report is published by the World Economic Forum that is an index designed to measure gender equality. The Global Gender Gap Report benchmarks 144 countries on their progress towards gender parity across four thematic dimensions:

    1. Economic Participation and Opportunity
    2. Educational Attainment
    3. Health and Survival
    4. Political Empowerment
  • India has been ranked 108th in World Economic Forum (WEF) gender gap index, same as 2017, while recording improvement in wage equality for similar work and fully closing its tertiary education gender gap for the first time.
  • As per the Report, India has many challenges as it ranks 142nd out of 149 countries in the economic opportunity and participation sub-index.
  • At the 108th place, India is behind its neighbours China and Bangladesh. India got a score of 0.669, which up from 0.601 in 2006, but down from 0.683 in 2016.

India Ranks 148th for Number of Women MPs

  • India ranks 148 in the world for the number of women in Parliament, according to a report prepared by Inter-Parliamentary Union and United Nations Women/May 2017
  • Women in India make up about 11.8% of the Lok Sabha and 11% in the Rajya Sabha – while there are 64 of them in the 542-member Lower House, there are 27 women out of the 254 Upper House members.
  • India fared a little better when it came to women ministers in the Cabinet – ranking 88 – with Sushma Swaraj and Nirmala Sitharaman holding important portfolios. Sumitra Mahajan is the Speaker in the Lok Sabha.
  • Both Pakistan (ranked 89) and Bangladesh (91) fared better than India on women Parliamentarians. About 20.6% of Pakistan’s MPs are women, while Bangladesh has a 20% representation

Contemporary Statutory Measures for Women

  • The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2018 enhances maximum punishment to death penalty in cases of rape of girls under-12 years of age. The new law also mandates that the probe in such cases mush finish within two months.
  • To provide safe and secured environment at workplace The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013 has been enacted.
  • Apart from this, The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005; for protection of the rights of women who are victims of violence of any kind within the family; The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961; The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006, for prohibition of solemnisation of child marriages; The Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012 to protect children from offences of sexual assault; The Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques Act (PC&PNDT), 1994 for prohibition of sex selection, before or after conception are women specific legislations put in place by the Government.

Draft National Policy for Women, 2016

The Union Cabinet Minister for Women & Child Development Ministry has unveiled a draft of National Policy for Women, 2016 (yet to come in full force), which will replace the National Policy for the Empowerment of Women, 2001. Apart from the safety issues, the draft also seeks to address the emerging challenges confronting Indian women.

Salient features of the National policy for women empowerment:

  • To create a society with women working as equal partners in all spheres of life
  • To develop a framework to ensure equal rights and opportunities for women
  • To make cyber space a safe place for women and to address “redistribution of gender roles, for reducing unpaid care work, review of personal and customary laws in accordance with the Constitutional provisions and many more.”
  • It also seeks to review the criminalisation of marital rape keeping women’s rights in mind
  • Health and education of women have been kept a priority in the proposed draft
  • The draft has proposed to “improve access to pre-primary education, enrolment and retention of adolescent girls.”
  • To carry out skill development and provide equal employment opportunities
  • To provide suitable benefits related to maternity and child care services
  • The draft plans to increase women’s participation in the political, administration, civil services and corporate boardrooms arena
  • To address all forms of violence against women
  • To improve child sex ratio (CSR)
  • To prevent trafficking at source, transit and destination areas for effective monitoring of the networks

Sexual Harassment at the Workplace

Sexual Harassment at workplace is an extension of violence in everyday life and is discriminatory and exploitative, as it affects women’s right to life and livelihood.

  • In India, for the first time in 1997, a petition was filed in the Supreme Court to enforce the fundamental rights of working women, after the brutal gang rape of Bhanwari Devi, a social worker from Rajasthan. As an outcome of the landmark judgment of the Vishakha and Others Vs State of Rajasthan, the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013, was enacted to provide a mechanism to redress grievances pertaining to workplace sexual harassment and enforce the right to gender equality of working women.
  • The legislation, however, required the support and commitment of all stakeholders for its effective and successful implementation in preventing sexual harassment. It casts an obligation upon the employer to address the grievances in respect of sexual harassment at workplace in a time bound manner. It is in this context that this handbook would be very useful as it provides clear definition of what constitutes sexual harassment and explains how the complaint process works.
  • Sexual Harassment” includes anyone or more of the following unwelcome acts or behaviour (whether directly or by implication), namely:
    • Physical contact or advances
    • A demand or request for sexual favours
    • Making sexually coloured remarks
    • Showing pornography
    • Any other unwelcome physical, verbal or non-verbal conduct of a sexual nature

Me Too Campaign

Tarana Burke, a social activist and community organizer, began using the phrase “Me Too” in 2006, on the Myspace social network as part of a campaign to promote “empowerment through empathy” among women of color who had experienced sexual abuse, particularly within underprivileged communities. Burke said, she was inspired to use the phrase after being unable to respond to a 13-year-old girl who confided to her that she had been sexually assaulted. Burke later wished she had simply told the girl, “me too”.

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