Eary Medieval India

Answer : The system of Chola administration was highly organized and efficient. The Cholas alone were able to ignore their feudatories to a significant extent unlike the Chalukayas the Rashtrakutas and the Hoyasalas. The Chola political system was the only one which still maintained contact with the cultivators on a wide scale, and retained characteristics of a centrally organized administration.

The king was the pivot of the whole state machinery. All authority rested in his hands, but he had a council of ministers to advise him. The kings often went on tours in order to keep better touch with administration. A highly organized administration included efficient officers of different ranks. Higher officials were called Parundam, where as lower officers were known as Shirudanam. The posts of the officers were hereditary and there was hardly any difference among the civil and military officials, Officers were granted lands instead of cash for their services. From Chola inscriptions, we came to know that the presence of all the officers was mandatory at the movement when there was any announcement made by the king. For the purpose of both extending and defending their frontiers, the Chola had organized a powerful army. The king led the army in the time of war in addition to yuvaraja and generals.

The Chola Empire was divided in the six provinces called mandalams. Each mandalam was divided into valanadu or kottams or divisions comprising various districts. Each kottam was divided into Nadus or districts. These in turn were subdivided into a number of Tehsils or village unions called kurrams, and each kurram comprised of various villages, generally five. Occasionally a very large village would be administered as a single unit and this was called a taniyur. A mandalam or province was put under the charge of a viceroy who usually belonged to the royal family or was otherwise a very trusted person of the ruler.

There was an extensive growth of industry crafts, trade and agricultural productions in the Chola Empire. Keeping all these in view records were prepared carefully in respect of landed rights and outstanding revenues. According to Chola inscriptions, the entire land of the Cholamandalam was surveyed during the reigns of Rajendera I and Kulatunga I in order to ensure land revenues. Besides land tax the other sources of revenue were slat tax, customs, profession duties, water cess and fines, wood taxes, marriage tax and mines tax. It appears that the government tapped almost all conceivable sources of revenue to fill its coffers. But the Chola rulers spent a major portion of their income on the welfare of their subjects rather than on their personal comforts. From time to time the king personally went on tours to see that the officers did not interfere with the free life of the people.

Money was spent liberally on the construction of temples, roads, canals and other works of public utility. They took special interest in providing irrigation facilities to farmers.

Justice was mostly a matter of local concern. The village assemblies enjoyed great powers in the filed of justice. We have the mentions of Dharmasana and Dharmasasana Bhatta recorded in Chola inscriptions. Dharmasana was meant for the court of monarch.

The administrative unit was the village and the nature of village administration was certainly of a very different order. The degree of autonomy at village level was something quite remarkable for the times Chola officers participated in village affairs more as advisers and observers than administrators. The Chola pattern of government was based more or less on democratic principles and most of the business was carried on by popular assemblies. The most important assemblies were of four kinds. The Natytar was the assembly of a whole district or Nadu and decided all the cases pertaining to the unit. Nagarattar was an assembly of the merchants and trade4rs. Ur was the general assembly of the village. Sabha or Mahasabha was the most popular assembly where only the selected few and the elders of the village took part and carried on the business of following a regular procedure. It wielded a great authority in the administration of the rural areas.

The Cholas did not believe in centralization of administration, on the other hand they had allowed vast powers to their local units.

The kurrams or unions of villages and the villages enjoyed self-government and remained unaffected from the central politics. The famous Uttaramerur inscription of 919 and 929 AD of the period of Parantaka gives details of how the local self-government and village administration functioned. The Chola pattern of committees was called variyam. There were three types of village assemblies existed in the Cholamandalam - Ur, Sabha or Mahasabha and Nagaram. The Ur consisted of tax paying residents of an ordinary village. The Sabha was restricted to the Brahmans. But the Nagaram was found more commonly in trade centers. Since, it catered almost entirely for mercantile interests. In some villages the Ur and the Sabha are found together. Very large villages had two Urs as this was more convenient for their functioning.

Answer : In Indian context the term Samanta system means the political system that chiefly de­pended on land-owners. We come to know about the begin­ning of the system at the Gupta period but it was its full swing during the Rajput Age.

How the Samanta or feudal tendency grew is obvious from paucity of coins of common use from the Gupta period onwards. This factor was linked with the decline of internal trade. In the Harsha period hardly any coin can be ascribed with certainty to any ruling class. It indicates that there was no purchasing power around needing coins of common usage. Moreover, political, social, religious and economic conditions of the land gave a strong base for feudalism. Frequent invasions weakened the central authority and anarchy prevailed in the past-Gupta period. The weakness of the central power led to the rise of an in­fluential class, which undertook the charge of defending the people. In an age of anarchy and uncertainty people were attracted towards the rising class of small kingdoms, which developed elements of feudalism.

There was the growth of individual ownership of land at the cost of royal and communal ownership. The peasantry was subjected to various disabilities through sub-infeuda­tion, eviction and imposition of non-customary taxes and forced labour.

Attendance of feudal dignitaries at the royal court on specified occasions was made obligatory. The vas­sal was expected to pay regular tribute to his emperor and to assist him With troops and money.

The vassal while granting his charters was expected to mention the name and title of his over-lord before that of his own. On occasions the resident representative of the overlord used to be present in the courts of the vassals. Very often vassals acted as ministers of their lords.

The titles used by the feudatories also grew in number. The important rankers were known as Maha Samantas, Mahamandaleshvaras and so on. The man of lower rank took the titles of Raja, Samanta, Thakura, Bhokta etc.

A text of twelfth century, namely, the Manasollas clearly suggests a king not to violate their samantas, ministers, courtiers and military personnel. Nine classes of samantas and revenues, used by them are mentioned in the Manasar. The following categories of samantas are claimed in the Aparajitprichha, a text of the 12th century:

1. Mahamandaleshwar;
2. Mandalika;
3. Mahasamanta;
4. Samanta;
5. Laghu Samanta; and
6. Chaturanshaka.

The persons who were granted lands gradually increased their influence and became samantas. Thus, an important class emerged in between the king and his subjects. The position of the general people declined in consequence as they had to rely more on samantas than the king.

Answer : The Chola kings followed a highly efficient system of’ administration. The entire Tanjore district, parts of’Trichy, Pudukottai and South Arcot districts formed the part of’ the Chola Mandalam. The Cholas had three major administrative divisions called Central Government, Provincial Government and Local Government. Tanjore was the capital of the Cholas. The efficient Chola administrative system has been well appreciated by many historians and rulers.

The king was the head of the administration. The Chola kings and Queens were considered as representatives of God. Their idols were kept in temples. The Chola kingship was hereditary. The Chola royal family followed the principle that eldest son should succeed the king to the Chola throne. The heir apparent was called Yuvaraja, The Chola monarchs enjoyed enormous powers and privileges. The Chola kings took up titles which marked their achievements. They lived in very big royal palaces. Kings were assisted by ministers and officials in their administration. Chola kings had tiger as their royal emblem.The Central Government was under the headship of the King. Council of ministers and officials took active part in running the administration of Central Government. The higher officials were called Peruntaram and the lower officials were called Siruntaram.The Chola Empire was divided into nine provinces. They were also called mandalams. The head of the province was called viceroy. Close relatives of kings were appointed as viceroys. The Viceroys were in constant touch with the Central Government. Viceroys received orders from the king. They sent regular reply to the king. The viceroys had a large number of officials to assist them in the work of administration.

The success of the Chola administration depended more on the proper functioning of the administrative divisions. Generally mandalams were named after the original names or the titles of the Chola kings. Each mandalam was divided into number of Kottams or Valanadus. Each kottam was sub divided into nadu. Each nadu was further divided into (Urs) villages which form part of the last unit of the administration. Uttaramerur inscriptions speak about the administration of the Cholas.

The land revenue was the main source of income of the Chola Government. Proper land survey was made. Lands were classified as taxable land and non taxable land. There were many grades in the taxable lands. Land revenue differed according to these grades. Generally 1/6 of the land yield was collected as tax either in cash or in kind or both according to the convenience of the farmers. Besides land revenue, there were some other sources of income like customs and tolls. Taxes on mines, ports, forests and salt pans were collected. Professional tax and house tax were also collected. Many other taxes were levied. Tax burden was more on the society. Sometimes due to failure of rain and famine people could not pay tax.

The Cholas had an efficient army and navy. The Chola army consisted of elephant, cavalry and infantry. Soldiers were given proper training. Commanders enjoyed the ranks of nayaks and senapathis. The army was divided into 70 regiments. The Chola arm had 60,000 elephants. Very costly Arabian horses were imported to strengthen the cavalry. The Chola kings defeated the Cheras at Kandalur salai. The kings of Ceylon and Maldives were also defeated. The Chola navy was formidable one in South India. With the help of their navy the Cholas controlled Coromandal and Malabar coasts. Bay of Bengal became the Chola Lake. The Chola army and navy together had 1, 50,000 trained soldiers. The armies of the tributary chieftains also joined Chola army at needy times. Generally the Chola army was led by the King or Yuvaraja.

The Chola king was the chief justice. The Chola kings gave enough care for the judicial administration. The village level judicial administration was carried on by the village assembly. Minor disputes were heard by the village assembly. Disputes were settled with proper evidences. Punishments were awarded by the judicial officers. The trial of serious offences and major cases were conducted by the king himself.

Every village was a self-governing unit. A number of villages constituted a larger entity known as a Kurram, Nadu or Kottram, depending on the area. A number of Kurrams constituted a valanadu. These structures underwent constant change and refinement throughout the Chola period. Justice was mostly a local matter in the Chola Empire; minor disputes were settled at the village level. Punishment for minor crimes was in the form of fines or a direction for the offender to donate to some charitable endowment. Even crimes such as manslaughter or murder were punished with fines. Crimes of the state, such as treason, were heard and decided by the king himself; the typical punishment in these cases was either execution or the confiscation of property.

Answer : The success of turko, Afghans and Mughals was the consumption of a process which extended till the establishment of Mughal empire rather than the inferior cavalry of the Rajputs. There was a basic lack of consciousness of the need for defence. A conjoint effort of various Indian rulers was not made through the centuries, to defend the north-west passes.

The conquest of Afghanistan and Punjab by Mahmud Ghazni breached the outer defence of India. It enabled hostile forces to stage their forces in the area, and not to make forays into vital areas of India at will. Thus, India was tactically put on the defensive. It is to be noted that during the entire period, the Rajput states of the area showed a singular lack of understanding or strategic insight. Thus no effort was made by them to join together to oust the Ghaznavids from Punjab even after the death of Mahmud, when the outbreak of internal struggle among his successors took place.

The lack of strategic consciousness may be explained by the lack of political unity, or by the absence of dominant power in north-west India. It was not because they did not have enough economic or human resources. In terms of size and resources many of the Rajput principalities of the time were superior, both in terms of population and revenue resources, to almost any of the successors of the Abasid empire. The tract under the control of the Rajputs, outside Rajasthan and Bundelkhand, were very fertile and productive.

The Rajput forces were not inferior in numbers, or in the quality of their mounts and weapons but they were definitely inferior in terms of Social organization and leadership. The growth of feudalism, ie. rise of the local landed elements and chiefs had weakened the administrative structure and military organization of the Indian states. The large Rajput armies which faced the Turko-Afghans and Mughals did not have a unified command, being brought to the field and led by their own feudatory rulers. It was difficult to manoeuvre such heterogenous forces. Moreover, the Rajputs gave greater weight to man than to mobility.

The Turko-Afghan and Mughals were reputed to be the most skilful horseman in the world. Also, they were used to manoeuvre together because their rulers were accustomed to maintaining large standing armies. Their tribal structure and the growth of the iqta and khalisa systoms enabled them to maintain large standing armies which could be kept in the field for long times. The Rajput armies rarely acted in coordination, and quickly dispersed to their areas after battle.

The Turko-Afghan and Mughal warriors were used to quick movements, of rapid advance and retreat, and of shooting arrows while mounting. Whereas the Rajput forces tended to be a very slow moving mass centred on their elephants. They were beaten by swift cavalry forces which attacked their flanks and rear. While elephants themselves were not a source of weakness, what mattered was how they were used. They provided stability and were most effective when combined with skilled and highly mobile cavalry.

The Turkish armies were in constant contactwith troops and horse reinforcement across theborder but the strength of the Indian armies remained largely static. The Turkish soldiers were eager to fight, with the attraction of plunder to keep them going, whereas the Rajput Soldiers were by now weary of fighting and were exhausted from the many internal campaigns.

Reinforcements of good central Asian horses provided a better livestock for the Afghan cavalry, which was used to excellent effect in pitched battles. The Indian army had always suffered from the inferior breed of horse and consequently chary of exploiting the cavalry.

The Rajput army tended to fight in solid phalanxes relying on force to carry them through, and were handicapped in trying to match the shock tactics of Turks. The latter tended increasingly to concentrate on capturing forts which had strategic advantage. The Rajput army was therefore forced into defensive position in hill country, which did not add to its comfort. Guerrila warfare may have been one means of harassing the Turkish armies, particularly when they were on the march, but this did not appear to have been used very effectively.

The psychological approach to war was also very different. The turko Afghan and Mughals regarded war as a matter of life and death, but for the Indian princes in particular, it was almost a form of sport with its own rules to play. To apply chivalric code in minor campaign may have relieved the tedium of war, but the campaigns against the Turks were of an entirely different nature.

Many of the Turkish commander were slaves who had been brought up by the Sultansand trained for warfare. While as an institution slavery is hardly to be commended, in the immediate context, it provided the Turkish sultans with a body of commanders who were totally loyal and devoted.

There was a sharp decline in the number of soldiers in the standing armies maintained by individual Rajput rulers. This, is turn, has been linked to the growth of feudalism, or a process by which administrative authority, including the collection of land revenue and maintenance of the army, was delegated more and more to a body of hereditary land holders, called samanta. These samantas were difficult to control and were always eager to set themselves up as an independent ruler whenever a suitable opportunity arose.

Religious factor was also one of the major cause of the defeat of Rajputs. To some extent religion was able to provide a bond of union between people divided on the basis of tribe, clan, caste, ethnicity etc. and between them and the ruling groups is a matter of debate. But there is a little doubt that Islam did provide a strong bond of unity between different groups and sections, and infased them with a strong sense of mission and fighting spirit. In their operation’s in India, this was combined with an equally strong spirit of gain through plunder. The Islamic spirit of equality and brotherhood was certainly a positive point, but it did not extend to the social sphere.

However, on the balance, there was greater social mobility among the Turks than among the Rajputs. Thus, an ironsmith established the Saffavid dynasty which ruled in West Asia for some time before the rise of the Ghaznavids. Finally, the lack of a strategic perspective on the part of the Rajput put them tactically on the defensive. This led to long term disadvantages which has to be seen in the perspective of the prevailing Indian cultural ethos. The general attitude and organisation in northern India was also a contributing factor in their defeat. The life was in a state of confusion, devoid of any logical order and in the last instance always mixed up with notion of the crowd insularity at every level was characteristic of northern India in the period under discussion and the price of this insecurity was shaking up the country by the comming of the Turko-Afghan and Mughals. Fortunately this did not result in total disruption. It introduced new vitality into the pattern of life.

Answer : The administrative unit was the village and the nature of village administration was certainly of a very different order. The degree of autonomy at village level was something quite remarkable for the times. Chola officers participated in village affairs more as advisers and observers than as administrators. The Chola pattern of government was based more or less on democratic principles and most of the business was carried on by the popular assemblies. The most important assemblies were of four kinds :

• The Nattar was the assembly of a whole district or Nadu and decided all the cases pertaining to that unit.
• The second popular assembly was nagarattar which was an assembly of the merchants and traders and looked after trade and commerce.
• Ur was the general assembly of the village where local residents discussed their matters without any formal rule or procedure.
• The Sabha or Mahasbha was the most popular assembly where only the selected few and elders of the village took part and carried on the business by following a regular procedure. It wielded a great authority in the administration of the rural areas.

The Cholas did not believe in centralization of the administration, on the other hand they had allowed vast powers to their local units. The Kurrans or unions of villages enjoyed self-government and were allowed vast powers. The famous Uttaramerur Inscriptions of 919 and 929 A.D. of the period of Parantaka gives details of how the local self-government and village administration functioned. The Chola pattern of committees was called variyam. There were three types of village assemblies existed in the Cholamandalam: Ur, Sabha or Mahasabha and Nagaram. The Ur consisted of the tax-paying residents of an ordinary village. The Sabha was restricted to the brahmanas. But the nagaram was found more commonly in trade centres, since it catered almost entirely for mercantile interests. In some villages the Ur and the Sabha are found together. Very large villages had two Urs if this was more convenient for their functioning.

The Ur : It was open to all the male adults of the village but in effect the older members took a more prominent part, some of them forming a small executive body for routine matters. The executive body of the ur was called Alunganan or Ganam. Each member was paid in cash for their services. The Ur recorded the proposals of its members. Even two Urs worked in same villages. In Shantamangalam, two urs were functioning at the same time around 1227 A.D. The first of them belonged to the inhabitants of Hindu Devadana, while the next was the Ur of Jaina Pallichandam. This sort of instances were also available at the villages of Urattukurram and Amanakundi around 1245 A.D.

Gram Sabha : This was concerned with the settlement of brahmanas or Agrahara villages. The inscriptions of Tandamandalam and Cholamandalam throw light on the structure of Gram Sabhas. These types of assemblies were in abundance in the regions of Kanchi and Chennai. From the inscriptions of uttaramerur we come to know that the Sabha functioned through its excutive bodies called variyam. Election to the Sabha appears to have been by lot from amongest those who were eligible.

A Sabha consisted of thirty wards and one members was selected from each ward. A candidate desiring to enter into the Sabha must have fulfill certain qualifications. He must have owned more than one quarter of the tax-paying land. Even if he owned only one-eighth of the land, his name could be included provided he had learnt one Veda and one of the four Bhasyas. Qualifications were generally determined by the Gram Sabha itself. However, the king passed directions on certain occasions. Names were written on tickets for thirty wards and each of the wards prepared a separate covering ticket for thirty wards bundled separately. These packets were put into a pot. A full meeting of the great assembly convened on the day when the tickets had a to be drawn. In the midst of the temple the eldest priest stood up and lifted that pot so as to be seen by the people. Then a minor boy was asked to choose a ticket from the pot. Name written on the ticket was thus nominated for the Sabha. Twelve of the thirty members chosen through this manner were further nominated for the annual committee or Samvatsarariyam. Likewise, twelve members were chosen for Tottavariyam or the Garden committee and the remaining six formed Erivariyam or the tank committee. The number of committees varied from village to village on the basis of necessity. The members of a committee were called Variyappe-rumakkal. The Mahasabha was known so far as Perunguri, while its members were called Perumakkal.

The scope of functioning of the Gram Sabha was too extensive. The Mahasabha held the ownership of public land. Besides personal property also came under its jurisdiction. Elementry treatments were exercised in the Gram Sabha in respect of the transfer of land sought for central government's approval. These assemblies, subject to the supervision and general control of imperial officers designated as Adhikarnis, enjoyed almost full powers in the management of rural affairs. The Sabha collected all the taxes, made payments, maintained charitable institutions and performed works of public utility.

The Sabha looked into the cultivation of land and provided every facility for its irrigation. Cutting of woods and preparing of cultivated lands also wcame under its purview. It had the discretion to levy taxes for the benefit of the village. The roads were also maintained by it and every possible attempt was made so repair them at an early date so that they could serve the purpose of traffic both of men and cattle. This assembly was also responsible for the maintenance of peace and order and the administration of justice. It could even pass the highest sentence on criminals. The death sentence was however, subject to the sanction of the higher authorities.

Nagaram : Local merchant guilds, referred to by the general name Nagaram, existed in towns and were affiliated with the large guilds described by more specific names. The function of the Nagaram was to promote trade and commerce in addition to determine taxes on mercantile groups, commercial formats and industrial activities. The collection of taxes was the responsibility of the Nagaram. This assembly has been mentioned as a separate has been mentioned as a separate unit of administration in an Nagarams as units of administration is inscripted on the wall of the temple of Rajarvaeshwar. The Takkolam inscription quotes two classes of the Nagaram. Two officials are mentioned in Chola inscription who looked after the matters of the Nagaram. These are Nagarkaranatar and Nagarakkannuvalkku. The former undertook the works of keeping records, while the latter kept accounts of the guilds.

Answer : The Cholas had ruled as chieftains in Tamilnad since AD 1st century. Towards the middle of the 9th century, Vijayalaya (846-870) conquered Tanjore (the heart of Tamilnad) and declared himself the ruler of an independent state. Even more important was Parantaka I (1906-53) who conquered the land of the Pandyas, but suffered defeat at the hands of a Rashtrakuta king. Chola power became solidly established in the reign of Rajaraja I (985-1014), and of his son and successor Rajendra I (1014-1042). Rajaraja's policy of annexation was influenced by the consideration of trade. He began by attacking the alliance between Kerala, Ceylon and the Pandyas in order to break their monopoly of western trade. The Pandyas had already been subjugated. The Arab traders were well settled on the west coast and enjoyed the support of the cheras. To eliminate Arab competition in trade, particularly in South-East Asia, Rajaraja I tried to bring Malabar under his control. He later led a noval expedition against the Maldive Islands. This had assumed imporance in the Arab trade. The Cholas, although unable to strike directly at the Arab trade, caused havoc in Ceylon with a devastating campaign when the existing capital Anuradhapura, was destroyed and the Cholas moved the capital to Pollannarua. The conflict over the rich province, Vengi, resumed between the Cholas and the later Chalukyas.

The annexationst ambitions of Rajendra I turned north wards as far as the Ganges valley. He marched up to the east coast of India, through Orissa and up the river Ganga. There he threatended the Pala King ruling in Bengal before returning to the South. Even more daring was Rajendra's overseas campaign against the kingdom of Shri Vijaya (The southern Malaya peninusla and Sumatra in South-East Asia) in order to protect Indian commercial interests in South-East Asia and Southern China. The campaign was successful and for a while Indian ships and goods passed without interference through Shri Vijaya territory. This permitted a steady improvement in the commerce of southern Indian and better communications with the Chinese to whom Kulottunga I (1070-1118) sent an embassy of 72 merchants in 1077.

The system of Chola administration was highly organized and efficient. The king was the pivot of the whole state machinery. The Chola administrative system was based more or less on democratic principles and most of the government business was carried on by the popular assemblies. The most important assemblies were of four kinds which played an important part in the administration of the Chola Empire. The Nattar was the assembly of a whole district (or nadu) and decided all the cases pertaining to that unit. The second popular assembly was Nagarattar which was an assembly of the merchants and traders and looked after trade and commerce. Ur was the general assembly of the village where the local residents discussed their matters without any formal rules or procedure. The Sabha or Mahasabha was the most popular assembly where only the selected few and elders of the village took part and carried on the business by following a regular procedure. The Chola Empire was divided into six provinces called. 'Mandalams'. Each Mandala or Province was further divided into a number of 'Kottams' or divisions comprising various districts. Each Kottam was further divided into a number of Tehsils or village-unions called 'Kurrams' and each Kurram was comprised the various village (generally five). The Cholas did not believe in centralization of the administrative machinery, on the other hand they had allowed vast powers to their local units. The Kurrams (unions of village) and the villages enjoyed self-government and were allowed vast powers. These village assemblies had a great say in the management of their local affairs.

Art and Architecture : Under the Choals, the Davida style of temple architecture, exclusive to the south, attained its most magnificent form. The main feature of this style was the building of five to seven storeys (in a typical style called the vimana) above the chief deity-room (garbhagriha). A large elaborately carved pillared hall with flat roof was placed in front of the sanctum. This mandap acted as an audience hall and a place for various other ceremonies. Sometimes a passage was added around the sanctum for devotees to walk around it, where images of many other Gods were placed. The entire structure was enclosed by high walls, with very lofty gateways called Gopurams.

The Brihadiswara temple at Tanjore built by Rajendra I, is an example of the Dravida style. Another is the Gangaikonda-Cholapuram temple. Temple-building activity continued even after the fall of the Cholas. The Hoysalesvara temple at Halebid is the most magnificent example of the Chalukyan style. The temple contained finely sculptured panels which show a busy panorama of life. The ground plan was not rectangular, but was star-shaped or polygonal, within which was accommodated the temple built on a raised platform. The gaint statue of Gomteswar at Shravana Belagola is a fine example of the standards attained in sculpture in this period. Chola craftsmen excelled in making bronze figurines. The Nataraja, the dancing figure of Shiva, is considered a masterpiece.

Answer : Large-scale land grants and related economic changes led to the evolution of social structure broadly characterized by a sizeable number of intermediaries and a large body of improverished peasantry. The Samantas and the ruling landed aristocracy irrespective of their social origins emerged as a distinctive group. The brahmana landlords constituted a section of this class. They gave up their priestly function and diverted their attention to the management of land and people. A person's position in society did not simply depend on the Varna to which he belonged, but on how much land he possessed. These tendencies got accentuated in the 9-10th centuries. When the Kayasthas, traders and members of the rich dominant peasantry were also conferred titles such as ranaka, nayaka etc. as and when they joined the upper section of the society and ruling landed elite.

The shudras were getting transformed into cultivators as a result of the expansion of agricultural settlements, thereby coming closer to the vaishyas. The vaishyas practically lost their identity as peasant caste. By the 11th century they came to be treated with the shudras, both ritually and legally. Thus the newly founded brahmanical orders in Bengal and southern Indian provided mainly for two broad social categories, brahmanas and shudras, although within each division there were numerous sub-divisions. The intermediary Varnas were absent. The tendency to eliminate intermediary varnas is also noticable in the status of scribes. The Kayasthas, Karanas, lekhakars and lipikars are classed as shudras, same was true of gavundas in Deccan. One of the most distinctive features of the social change was the phenomenal increase in the rise of new castes in each Varna, most pronouncedly among brahmanas. Mitakshra, the famous commentary on the Smriti of Yagyavalkya speaks of the tenfold gradation of brahmanas. The scribes were known variously as Kayasthas, Karana, Karanika, Pustapala, akaspatalika, garundas (Gowdas), etc. The position of women in the society progressively declined.

Answer : From Harsha’s death to the twelfth century A.D. the destiny of Northern and central India was controlled by the various Rajput dy­nasties. The Rajputs were very proud of their high descent from the Aryan heroes like Rama and Krishna. They were very brave and Chivalrous and would never show their back to their enemy. They were always true to their word and hated deceit and treachery like anything. They would not attack an unarmed enemy and would treat them generously. They honoured their women like anything and staked their lives to protect them and their honour.

Apart from the possession of land determin­ing the social life of Rajputs there appeared two striking characteristics. One was increase in the number of castes. Kalhana mentions as many as 64 different groups. Jati became more of reality while varna became a sociological fiction. Along with Jati becoming a reality, specific occupation, affiliation and hierarchical ranking based on the concept of ritual purity emerged.

As expected, Brahmins occupied the topmost rung of social ladder. Other Brahmins, who were of aboriginal origin like the Brahmins of Kannauj, Mithila, Sherayaupari etc. belonged to lower lev­els. Although the Brahmin is supposed to follow learning and priesthood, they took to other occu­pations also. Added to this Brahmins enjoyed vari­ous times of immunities.

Below the Brahmin was the Kshatriya. Of all the members of the society only the Kshatriyas took part in warfare. The Rajputts held a high position among the Kshatriyas and were ever ready to sac­rifice their lives.

The third group was Vaishya. Their occupa­tional role was restricted to trade, commerce and money-lending. On the other hand, the status of Shudras has risen since they formed the most nu­merous elements in farming and artisan groups. Even religious rights were enjoyed. They were given the right to perform ceremonies and rituals which were formerly forbidden to them. At the bottom were the untouchables. Their life was unenviable. They lived on the periphery of society. Since caste had crystallized there came into exist­ence a hierarchy among untouchables, that is, they were divided into several sub-castes.

A good number of new castes also emerged, the most important being the Kayastha. This group of people began their career as officials and feudatory chieftains. By the 9lh century A.D. they appeared as a distinct caste divided into sub-castes on regional basis.

A great change in the position of women in the society had come but still they were much re­spected. They were given high education and were allowed to choose their husbands. Rajput women were not behind their men-folk in bravery and cour­age. They sowed wonderful courage in the time of difficulty and performed deeds of valour. They were devotedly loyal to their husbands and performed the “Sati” sacrifice most willingly. Pride, self-re­spect and honour were dearer to them than any­thing else in the world. In order to save their honour they would burn themselves on the pyre and per­form the practice of “Jauhar” or mass sacrifice. Widow-marriage was not so common. There was, however, no “Purdah” system in the society.

The caste-system had become very rigid and the idea of untouchability, which worked nothing less than poison for the Hindu society, was gain­ing ground during this period. Rich people, espe­cially the different Rajput chiefs led a very luxuri­ous life. They were fond of wine and opium and were inclined towards pleasure and dancing. These habits sometimes led to laziness and af­fected the society adversely.

Answer : The Cholas had ruled as chieftains in Tamil-nad since the first century A.D. They made their reappearance towards the middle of the ninth century, when Vijayala (850-875 A.D.) defeated the Pallavas in about 850 A.D. and re­gained much of the old Chola territory including Tanjore, which became henceforth the capital of the Chola Empire. In A.D. 907, the first important ruler of the Chola dynasty, Parantaka I, came to power and ruled for almost half a century. He se­cured the southern frontier of the kingdom by campaigning against the Pandyas and capturing their capital, Madurai. This brought him into con­tact with Ceylon, with whom the Pandyas had close relations, and hostilities between Ceylon and Tamil-nad began which were to last through sev­eral decades.

With the succession of Rajaraja I (985-1014 A.D.) began the most glorious period of the Cholas. He laid the foundation of a vast empire which in­cluded the whole of the present Tamil Nadu, Andhra, parts of Karnataka, Ceylon and other is­lands. He is also credited to have built a powerful navy to control the coastal waters of his vast em­pire. His son, Rajendra Chola (1014-1044 A.D.) not only consolidated the empire acquired from his father but also further extended it. He broke the power of the western Chalukyas and annexed by his father Rajaraja I. He also carried his arms right up to central India and made the ruler of Gondwana acknowledge his supremacy. He then over-ran the whole of Orissa and Bengal and ad­vanced as far as the southern banks of the Ganges. In memory of this exploit he took the title of ‘Gangaikonda’. But the most memorable achieve­ments of Rajendra Chola were the conquest of the Andamans and the Nicobar Islands and the Ma­laya Peninsula. Thus Rajendra Chola raised the Chola Empire to its great heights of glory.

Overseas trade was the strength of the Chola merchants. Mahabalipuram, Kaveripattinam, Shaliyur, and Korkai on the east coast and Quilon on the Malabar Coast had elaborate establishments controlling the South Indian trade both westwards and eastwards. Persia and Arabia were the desti­nations of those trading with the west, with Siraf on the Persian Gulf as an entrecote. Trade with China reached an unprecedented volume during these centuries, which led to its becoming a state monopoly in China, the Chinese government not wishing to lose the income from it. Kulottunga sent an embassy of seventy-two merchants in 1077. It is believed that there was an Indian settlement on the mainland opposite Formosa.

The Cholas did not believe in centralisation of the administrative machinery, on the other hand they had allowed vast powers to their local units. The basic assumption in the type of village should be administered by the villagers themselves. To this purpose a village assembly was formed, and authority was vested in this assembly. In the larger villages, where rural organization was more com­plex, there was a variety of assemblies and a vil­lager could be a member of two or more, depend­ing on the membership requirements. A village could be divided into wards and each ward could call an assembly of its members, some of whom might also be representatives of professional groups, such as the carpenters, smiths, etc, or part of a group supervising other village functions such as the maintenance of the local temple.

The general assemblies included most of the local residents and were of three categories: the ur was consisted of tax paying residents of an ordi­nary village; the sabha was found exclusively in village gifted to brahmans; and the nagram was found more commonly in trade centers, since it catered almost entirely for mercantile interest. In some villages the ur and the sabha are found to­gether. Very large villages had two urs if this was more convenient for their functioning.

The village assembly maintained charitable institutions and performed other works of public utility. It looked into the cultivation of land and provided every facility for its irrigation. The roads were also maintained by it and every possible at­tempt was made to repair them at an early date so that they served the purpose of traffic, both of men and cattle. The assembly was also responsible for maintenance of peace and order and the adminis­tration of justice. It could even pass the highest sentence on the criminals. The death sentence was, however, subject to the sanction of the higher au­thorities. To carry on the whole work of adminis­tration more efficiently, the Sabha had maintained many committees which were in charge of gar­dens, irrigation works, cultivated fields, general management, accounts, education and roads.

The Chola rulers wee not only mighty conquer­ors and great administrators but also great build­ers. They are still remembered for their vast irriga­tion schemes, huge embankments and dams, well planned cities and above all for their temples whose towers rise on their base like a pyramid. The center of the social and economic life at the time, particularly in the rural areas, was the temple. The temple would either be donated by the king, in which case it would generally be in the capital and intimately associated with the court, as was the case with the Rajarjeshvaram temple at Tanjore; or else it was built and maintained through the donations of guilds and merchants in a city and would therefore be associated with a dominant section of the city’s population; or a smaller temple would be built by the village. In villages, the temple came naturally to be the center of activity and in­terest, since the assembly was held there, as was the school and also due to the fact that the temple was maintained by village people.

The Shiva temple at Tanjore, built by Rajraja the Great, is the most magnificent example of the Chola architecture. It is known for its spacious courtyard and massive tower. Its tower rises to a height of 190 feet crowned by a single block of stone, 25 feet high and weighing about 80 tones. It is really a matter of great surprise as to how such a heavy piece of stone was taken to such a great height. The whole feet must have required a great technical and engineering skill.

Another beautiful specimen of Chola architec­ture is provided by the temple which was built by Rajaraja’s son and successor Rajendra I, in his new capital, Gangai-konda Cholapuram. This temple is known for its great size, huge Tingam’ of solid granite and delicate carvings in stone. These structures of the Cholas were no doubt huge and massive while looking from a far but they were decorated with minute sculptures involving im­mense labour and infinite pains. The Chola art, in fact, is characterized by massive grandeur. The renowned art critic, Fergusson has aptly re­marked,” The Chola artists conceived like giants and finished like jewelers.”

The art of sculpture also made a great progress under the Cholas. As discussed above, their temples contain some of the best specimens of carv­ings and sculptures. Regarding the sculptures of the Gangai-kondaCholapuram temple, Dr. V.A. Smith remarks, “The figure of sculptures in this temple is of high quality and recalls the best work in Java.” Similar sculptures are seldom to be seen elsewhere. The Chola artists made some of the rare specimens of images of their kings.

In the field of literature too, the Chola period witnessed a great progress. A large quantity of lit­erature both on the religious and literary subjects were produced in their period. They encouraged the study of grammar, astronomy, philosophy, various sciences and arts and the religious books like the Vedas, the Ramayana, the Mahabharta and the Shastras. Religious plays began to be enacted in the temples whereby the arts of dancing and music received a great impetus.