Mahajanapadas

Answer : Numerous religious sects arose in the middle Gangatic plains in the sixth century BC. We hear of as many as 62 religious sects. Of these sects Jainism and Buddhism were the most important and they emerged as the most potent religious reform movement. Gautama Buddha or Siddhartha was born in 563 BC in a Shakya Kshatriya family in Kapilavastu, which is situated in the foothills of Nepal.

Like Mahvira, Gautama also belongs to a noble family. Born in a republic, he also inherited some egalitarian sentiments. Since his early childhood Gautama showed a meditative bent of mind. He was moved by the misery which people suffered in the world and looked for the solution.

At the age of 29, he left home. He kept on wandering for about seven years and then attained knowledge at the age of 35 at Bodh Gaya under a papal tree. From this onwards he began to be called the Buddha or the enlightened. He delivered his first sermon at Sarnath in Banaras. He undertook long journeys and took his message far and wide. He kept on wandering, preaching and meditating continuously for 40 years, resting only in the rainy season every year.

During this long period he encountered many staunch supporters of rival sects including the Brahmans, but defeated them in debates. His missionary activities did not discriminate between the rich and the poor, the high and low, and man and women. He passed away at the age of 80 in 483 BC at a place called Kusinagar.

Buddhism does not recognize the existence of god and soul. This can be taken as a kind of revolution in the history of Indian religions. Since early Buddhism was not enmeshed in the lap-trap of philosophical discussion, it appealed to the common people. It particularly owns the support of the lower orders as it attacked the Varna system. People were taken in to Buddhist order without any consideration of caste. Women also admitted to the Sangha and thus brought on par with men. In comparison with Brahmanism, Buddhism was liberal and democratic. Buddhism made a special appeal to the people of the non-Vedic areas where it found a virgin soil for conversion. The people of Magadha responded readily to the Buddhism because they were looked down upon by the orthodox Brahmans.

The personality of Buddha and the method adopted by him to preach his religion helped the spread of Buddhism. He tried to fight evils by goodness and hatred by love. The use of Pali, the language of people, also contributed to the spread ofs Buddhism. Gautam Buddha also organized the Sangha or religious order, whose doors were kept open to everybody, irrespective of caste and sex. As a result of organized preaching under the auspices of the Sangha, Buddhism made rapid strides even in the lifetime of the Buddha. The monarchies of Magadha, Koshala and Kausambi and several republican states and their people adopted this religion.

Two hundred years after the death of the Buddha, the famous Maurya King Ashoka embraced Buddhism. This was an epoch making event. Through his agents Ashoka spread Buddhism in to Central Asia, West Asia and Sri Lanka and thus transformed it into a world religion. Even today Srilanka, Burma, Tibet and parts of China and Japan prefers Buddhism. Although Buddhism disappeared from the land of its birth, it continues to hold ground in the countries of South Asia, South-East Asia and East Asia.

Indian religious underwent changes in Post-Mauryan times partly due to a big leap in trade and artisan activity and partly due to the large influx of people from Central Asia Buddhism was especially affected. The monks and nuns could not afford to lose the cash donations from the growing body of traders and artisans concentrated in towns. Large numbers of coins have been found in the monastic areas of Nagarjunikonda in Andhra Pradesh. Further, the Buddhists welcomed foreigners who were non-vegetarians.

All this meant laxity in the day-to-day living of the nuns and monks who led a sparse life. They now accepted gold and silver, took to non-vegetarian food and wore elaborate robes. Discipline became so slack that some even deserted the religious order or the Sangha and resumed the householder’s life.

This new form of Buddhism came to be called the Mahyana or the Great Wheel. In the old Buddhism certain things associated with the Buddha were worshiped as his symbol. These were replaced with his images with the opening of the Christian era. Image worship in Buddhism seems to have led to the practice in Brahmanism on a large scale. With the rise of Mahayana, the old puritan school of Buddhism came to be known as the Hinayana or the Lesser Wheel.

Fortunately for the Mahayana, Kanishka became its great patron. He convened a council in Kashmir.

The members of the council composed 300,000 words, which thoroughly explained the three pitakas or collection of the Buddhist literature.

Kanishka got these commentaries engraved on sheets of red copper, enclosed them in a stone receptacle and raised a stupa over it.

He set up many other stupas to perpetuate the memory of Buddha. A few other rulers also adopted Buddhism. The famous Greek ruler Menander became a Buddhist.

Answer : Social aspects of Buddhism involve many different kinds of action intended to benefit mankind. These range from simple individual acts of charity, teaching and training, organized kinds of service, “Right Livelihood” in and outside the helping professions, and through various kinds of community development as well as to political activity in working for a better society. Buddhism is a pragmatic teaching which starts from certain fundamental propositions about how we experience the world and how we act in it.

It teaches that it is possible to transcend this sorrow-laden world of our experience and is concerned first and last with ways of achieving that transcendence. What finally leads to such transcendence is what we call Wisdom. The enormous literature of Buddhism is not a literature of revelation and authority. Instead, it uses ethics and meditation, philosophy and science, art and poetry to point a Way to this Wisdom. Similarly, Buddhist writing on social action, unlike secular writings, makes finite proposals which must ultimately refer to this Wisdom, but which also are arguable in terms of our common experience.

In the East, Buddhism developed different schools of “traditions,” serving the experiences of different cultures, ranging from Sri Lanka through Tibet and Mongolia to Japan. Buddhism may thus appear variously as sublime humanism, magical mysticism, poetic paradox and much else. These modes of expression, however, all converge upon the fundamental teaching, the “perennial Buddhism.” This pamphlet is based upon the latter, drawing upon the different oriental traditions to present the teachings in an attempt to relate them to our modern industrial society. From the evidence of the Buddha’s discourses, or suttas in the Digha Nikaya, it is clear that early Buddhists were very much concerned with the creation of social conditions favorable to the individual cultivation of Buddhist values.

An outstanding example of this, in later times, is the remarkable “welfare state” created by the Buddhist emperor, Asoka (B.C. 274-236). Buddhism arose in India as a spiritual force against social injustices, against degrading superstitious rites, ceremonies and sacrifices; it denounced the tyranny of the caste system and advocated the equality of all men; it emancipated woman and gave her complete spiritual freedom. The Buddhist scriptures do indicate the general direction of Buddhist social thinking, and to that extent they are suggestive for our own times. Nevertheless it would be pedantic, and in some cases absurd, to apply directly to modern industrial society social prescriptions detailed to meet the needs of social order which flourished twenty-three centuries ago.

The Buddhist householder of the Sigalovada Sutta 1 experienced a different way of life from that of a computer consultant in. It is thus essential to attempt to distinguish between perennial Buddhism on the one hand and, on the other, the specific social prescriptions attributed to the historical Buddha which related the basic, perennial teaching to the specific conditions of his day. We believe that it is unscholarly to transfer the scriptural social teaching uncritically and with careful qualification to modern societies, or to proclaim that the Buddha was a democrat and an internationalist. The modern terms “democracy” and 'internationalism' did not exist in the sense in which we understand them in the emergent feudal society in which the Buddha lived. Buddhism is ill-served in the long run by such special pleading. On the other hand, it is arguable that there are democratic and internationalist implications in the basic Buddhist teachings.

Buddhism, however, is humanism in that it rejoices in the possibility of a true freedom as something inherent in human nature. For Buddhism, the ultimate freedom is to achieve full release from the root causes of all suffering: greed, hatred and delusion, which clearly are also the root causes of all social evils. Their grossest forms are those which are harmful to others. To weaken, and finally eliminate them in oneself, and, as far as possible, in society, is the basis of Buddhist ethics. And here Buddhist social action has its place. The experience of suffering is the starting point of Buddhist teaching and of any attempt to define a distinctively Buddhist social action. However, misunderstanding can arise at the start, because the Pali word dukkha, which is commonly translated simply as “suffering,” has a much wider and more subtle meaning.

There is, of course, much gross, objective suffering in the world (dukkha-dukkha), and much of this arises from poverty, war, oppression and other social conditions. We cling to our good fortune and struggle at all costs to escape from our bad fortune. In short, Buddhist social action is justified ultimately and above all by the existence of social as well as individual karma. Immediately it is simply concerned with relieving suffering; ultimately, in creating social conditions which will favor the ending of suffering through the individual achievement of transcendent wisdom.

Several causes account for the decline of Buddhism. The period between the 400 BCE and 1000 CE saw gains by Hinduism at the expense of Buddhism. Some Hindu rulers resorted to military means in an effort to suppress Buddhism. However it is seen that the evolution of Hindu ideology influenced by Buddhism was more important factor for the growth of Hinduism. Hinduism became a more “intelligible and satisfying road to faith for many ordinary worshippers” than it had been because it now included not only an appeal to a personal god, but had also seen the development of an emotional facet with the composition of devotional hymns.

Literary evidences point towards an absorption of Buddhist elements by Hindu culture over a period of centuries. Anti-Buddhist propaganda was also reaching its peak during the 8th century when Shankara modeled his monastic order after the Buddhist Sangha. An upsurge of Hinduism had taken place in North India by the early eleventh century as illustrated by the influential Sanskrit drama Prabodhacandrodaya in the Chandela court; a devotion to Vishnu and an allegory to the defeat of Buddhism and Jainism. The population of North India had become predominantly Shaiva, Vaishnava or Shakta. By the 12th century a lay population of Buddhist hardly existed outside the monastic institutions and when it did penetrate the Indian peasant population it was hardly discernible as a distinct community. Buddhist monasteries were well-funded and life within was relatively easy. To avoid unwanted members, many monasteries became selective about whom they admitted, in some cases based on social class. The lack of royal patronage, revival of Hinduism under the Guptas, corruption in the Buddhism of idol worship was the main causes for the decline of Buddhism.

Answer : The C 600 BC saw the religious and economic reform movement in the Gangetic basin. Numerous religious sects arose in this area in Sixth Century BC. We hear of as many as 62 religious sects. Many of these sects were based on regional customs and rituals practised by different people. These changes were due to the steady growth of social discrimination and economic transformation. The causes which gave rise to religious reform movement and economic transformation, were manifold as.

In past-vedic times society was clearly divided into four Varnas; Brahamanas, Kshatrayas, Vaishyas and Shudras. Each varna was assigned well defined functions, although it was emphasized that varna was based on birth and the two higher varnas were given some privileges. The Brahmanas who were given the function of priests and teachers, claimed the highest status in society. They demanded several privileges, including those of receiving gifts and exemption from taxation and punishment. In post-vedic text we have many instances of such privileges enjoyed by them. The Kshatriyas ranked second in verna hierarchy they fought and governed and lived on the taxes collected from the peasants. The vaishyas were engaged in agriculture, cattle-rearing and trade. They appear as principal taxpayers. However, along with the two higher varnas they were placed in the category of dvija or the twice-born. A dvija was entitled to wearing the sacred thread and studying the vedas from which the shudras were kept out. The shudras were meant for serving the three higher varnas and along with women were barred from taking the vedic studies. They appear as domestic slaves, agricultural slaves, craftsmen and hired labourers in post-vedic time. They were called cruel, greedy and thieving in habits and some of them were treated as untouchables. The higher the varnas the more privileged and purer a person was. The lower the varna of an offender, the more severe was the punishment prescribed for him.

Naturally the varna divided society seems to have generated tensions. We have no means to find out the reactions of the vaishyas and the shudras. But the Kshatriyas who functioned as rurals reacted strongly against the ritualistic domination of the brahamanas and seem to have led a kind of protest movement against the importance attached to birth in the varna system. The Kshatriyas’ reaction against the domination of priestly class called brahmanas who claimed various privileges, was one of the causes of origin of new religions. Vardhman Mahavira, who founded Jainism, and Gautama Buddha who founded Buddhism belonged to the Kshatriya clan, and both disputed the authority of the brahmanas. But the real cause of the rise of these new religions and reform movement lay in the introduction of a new agricultural economy in northwestern India.

This period saw the rise of a large number of cities in northeastern India. We may refer for example, to Kaushambi near Allahabad, Kusinagar (in Deoria distt of Uttar Pradesh), Banaras, Vaishali, Chirand and Rajgir (situated at the distance of about 100 km south-east of Patna). Besides others, these cities had many artisans and traders, who began to use coins naturally facilitated trade and commerce, which added to the importance of the vaishyas. In the brahmanical society the vaishyas ranked third, the first two being brahmanas and kshatriyas. Naturally they looked for some religion which would improve their position. The vaishyas extended generous reform movement and religion of Mahavira and Buddha. The merchants, called the sethis made handsome gift to Gautama Buddha and his disciples. There are several reasons for it. First, Jainism and Buddhism in the initial stage did not attach any importance to the existing varna system. Second, they preached the gospel of non-violence, which would put an end to wars between different kingdoms and consequently promote trade and commerce. Third, the brahmanical law books, called the Dharamshastras, described lending money on interest as impious practice. A person who lived on interest was condemned by them. Therefore, the vaishyas, who lent money on account of growing trade and commerce were not held in eastem and were eager to improve their social status.

On the other hand we also notice a strong reaction against various forms of private property. Old-fashioned people did not like the use and accumulation of coins made certainly of silver and copper and possibly of gold. They detested new dwellings and dresses, new system of transport which amounted to luxury, and they hated war and violence. The new form of property created social inequalities, and caused misery and sufferings to the masses of the people. So the common people yearned to return to primitive life. They were not allowed to touch gold and silver. They were to accept only as much from their patrons as was sufficient to keep body and soul together. They, therefore, rebelled against the material advantages stemming from the new life in the Gangetic basin. In other words, we find the same kind of reaction against the changes in material life in north eastern India in the sixth century BC, as we notice against the changes introduced by the industrial revolution in modern times. The advent of the Industrial Revolution made many people think of return to the pre-machine age life, similarly people in the past wanted return to the pre-iron age life.

Answer : North Indian society and economy experienced a process of transition during the Pre-Mauryan period. The old view of regarding the non-Aryans as devils and demons was given up and a way was found to absorb any number of them into the Aryan fold without the Aryans destroying their own identity. The structural device used by the Aryans for absorbing non-Aryans was the caste system.

The changes that came in the economic life of people brought structural changes in the social system. As more and more people came to be drawn to the towns and the guilds, the Shudra community which worked on land moved upwards, i.e., joined the ranks of Vaishya community without being accepted into their fold. It was this gap in the social ranking or stratification that enabled Hinduism and Jainism to secure followers from the urban areas. But the gap that was left in the ranks of Shudras was filled. This was achieved by permitting the non-Aryans to move up into the Shudra fold.

The Vaishyas who pursued the most dynamic art of economic activity were unhappy about the low ritualistic rank in the social hierarchy since Brahmins were above Kshatriyas and Vaishyas. This made a large number of Kshatriyas and Vaishyas seek social equality which was open to followers of Buddhism and Jainism. From the Greek writers we come to know that the Indians led a very simple life and theft was very rare. But some evils like polygamy, the Sati system and Slavery had crept into the Indian society.

With the use of iron extensively, surplus food was produced and the new cereal of rice and pulses came to be cultivated. Surpluses always call for distribution. A good distribution system depends on improvements in transport technology. The centres that specialized in the distribution of surpluses grew into towns away from the food producing areas. The Indian traders exported blankets, skins, horses, elephants, pearls and diamonds, and earned a lot. Trade was under the control of the state and the merchants had to receive some short of passports before going to foreign lands. Coins were also in use but they were not very beautiful. The Greeks tell us that they were “oblong bits of metal cut of a strip” but were punch-marked.

Answer : Jaina ideas were in circulation in the seventh century. Their first Tirthankara was Rishabhadeva and the twenty third Tirthankara was Parshvanath, the son of King Ashvasena of Benaras, and according to Prof. Jacobi, he was “the real founder of the Jain reli­gion”. But it was the teacher Mahavira who gave shape to them in the sixth century, and his teaching led to the rapid spread and organization of the Jaina sect. Jaina teaching was at first preserved in an oral tradition, but in the third century B.C. it was collated and recorded, the final version being edited in the fifth century A.D.

Jainism was atheistic in nature, the existence of God being irrelevant to its doctrine. The uni­verse functions according to an eternal law and is continually passing through a series of cosmic waves of progress and decline. Everything in the universe, material or otherwise, has a soul. The purification of the soul is the purpose of living, for the pure soul is released from the body and then resides in bliss. The chief aim of a man is to attain salvation (Moksha) or freedom from the cycle of birth and rebirth. This salvation can be achieved by following three Jewels or Triratnas of right faith, right knowledge and right conduct. The teachings of Jainism are: (a) Non-violence; (b) Truth; (c) Non-stealing; (d) Prevention of owning property; and (e) Brahmacharya or celibacy. It is said that the first four were already circulating before Mahavira in Jaina tradition and only the fifth and last was added by him.