Question : Examine the factors which were responsible for opening and development of European trade in Indian during the 16th and 17th centuries.
(2006)
Answer : The landing of Vasco da Gama at Calicut in 1498 led to opening of new phase in the commercial history. The finding of direct sea route to India led to booming up of European trade with India which increased in volume later on. Several factors were responsible for opening and development of European trade in India during the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries.
The most important factor in this regard was that the European economy was growing rapidly at that time due to the expansion of land under cultivation on account of the drainage of marshes and cutting of forests, the introduction of an improved plough and a more scientific rotation of crops which also led to increase in supply of meat. The growth was reflected in the rise of towns, and increase of trade, both internal and external.
Moreover, since the Roman times, there had
been a steady demand for oriental goods in Europe. These included spices and drug from India, silk from China. With the economic revival, this demand increased, especially the needed to make meat palatable since due to shortage of fodder much of the cattle had to be slaughtered during the winter and the meat salted up.
Discovery of the all new sea route to India by the Europeans also contributed. Pepper and spices were brought to Europe overland and partly by sea from India and South-East Asia. With rise of the power of the Ottoman Turks from the early part of the fifteenth century, all these areas came under the control of the Turks. The Turks were not opposed to the trade, but the virtual monopoly over the pepper established by them was bound to act against the Europeans.
The expansion of Turkish power towards Europe made the Europeans uneasy and forced them to look at alternative trade routes to India. The lead in this was taken up by Portugal and Spain who commissioned voyages. Once Vasco-da Gama found the new route the European trade with India expanded and went on expanding.
Critical role in the expansion of trade was played also by certain path breaking inventions, notably the mariner’s compass and the astrolabe for navigation by day. Neither of them were European invention. The mariner’s compass was known to the Chinese several centuries earlier, but was not widely met. The astrolabe was however widely used by the Arabs, Indians and others. Nor were the European ships superior in construction to the ships used in Asian waters at that time. What made the critical difference however the new spirit of daring and enterprise displayed by the Europeans.
This spirit has been traced back to the revival of trade and commerce from the thirteenth century onwards, leading to the intense rivalry among European states. As important was the intellectual stirring called the Renaissance. The Renaissance signified above all a spirit of independent investigation rather then baring oneself either on the revealed world or on the wisdom enshrined in the Church.
These developments led to rapid assimilation, dispersal and improvement of other inventions such as the gun powder, printing, telescope etc. Developments in the metallurgy led to production of better quality guns.
Besides, the prospects of huge profits offered by trade with Asia in general and India in particular acted as further motivators in expansion of trade. Thus, Vasco da Gama returned after his first voyage with profits sixty times and value of goods he brought.
Equally important in this context was the intense competition among various European powers to capture the trade of various Asian countries.
Further, European traders trading through their monopolistic East India Companies were ended by the favourable and encouraging attitude towards them displayed by the Indian rulers. Thus, the ruler Zamorin of Calicut favourably received Vasco-da Gama when he reached Calicut on his first voyage to India. Moreover, the important ruling dynasties such as Bijapur and the Vijayanagar Kingdom also accorded favours on the Portuguese.
Similarly, the Mughal Emperors accorded great honours and granted several concessions to the European companies.
Equally important factor for expansion of European trade with India was the environment of political stability provided with the establishment of the Mughal Empire in India in between the sixteenth and the eighteenth centuries. Further, the Mughal Emperors provided better law and order conditions and also showed favourable attitude towards commerce. Moreover the Mughal rulers favourably treated the Indian merchants and at time saved those from the exaction of their nobles through European travelers like Bernier have noted this otherwise in their travelogue.
Lastly, India during this period had well-developed trading network both inside the country and outside. There were several rich merchant families owning ships and transporting merchandise.
Moreover, the commercial practices as Hindi system, the monetary system and the banking system too were all well developed. Many ports like Surat were in flourishing state.
India, besides, also produced some goods of special interest to Europeans. This included Indigo produced at Bayana near Agra and in Bihar and saltpeter produced near Sarkhej in Gujarat. The expansion of European trade however was not so beneficial for India in the long run. As the centralized rule of the Mughals weakened, the European companies made no secret of their desire for political subjugation of India and before long, India passed under the shackles of British colonialism.
Question : Give your opinion on the urban development in India during the Mughal times.
(2005)
Answer : The third urbanization of India began with the Turko-Afghans. The need for ruling over provinces led to some Turko-Afghan officials and nobles being stationed in the various provinces of the state. They were invariably associated with a few more Muslims belonging to various ranks. The Iqta system enabled the Iqta-holders and the officials to possess large sums of money. Since the Iqtas were not inheritable, the upper strata of these Turko-Afghans developed extravagant habits and lived a life of luxury. This development naturally encouraged artisans to flock to these new settlements which grew into towns. Commerce and trade resulting out of these developments were noticed by the Sultans. Ala-ud-Din Khilji tried to squeeze the commercial class. Mohd-bin-Tughluq tried to forge an alliance with them. And Firoz Tughlaq made nobility hereditary. In general, the attitude of the state was neither helpful nor unhelpful to the emergence of trade and commerce although the development of towns was inevitable. This trend grew in importance in the Mughal period.
About the urban development in India under the Mughals, we have a wealth of detailed data from the large number of European visitors as also from indigenous sources. A large portion of the sub-continent came under the Mughals and their public works encouraged trade and improved the general lot of the common men.
The emperors helped the growth of industry by maintaining numerous factories for the manufacture of various articles, such as armaments, court equipment, silks, carpets etc. For Akbar’s wardrobe as we learn from Abul Fazl, one thousand full suits were prepared every season. Of precious metals, jewellery and other costly articles, there was a glut with the higher classes as also in the markets of cities like Agra, Fatehpur Sikri, Delhi, Jannpur, Ahmedabad, Burhanpur, Lahore and Murshidabad.
Ralph Fitch visited Agra and Fatehpur Sikri in A.D. 1585 and found then to be larger than London and very populous. The entire distance of twelve miles between them was a sort of contiguous market, full of victuals. Terry gives a similar description of Lahore, and Monserrate regarded Burhanpur to be ‘very great, rich and full of people’. Reaching Sonargaon (Dacca) in A.D. 1586, Fitch noted ‘the best and finest cloth made in India. During the reigns of Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb, Delhi grew in importance and became the chief city and emporium of trade and crafts.
There were 120 cities and 3200 towns in Mughal period which included administrative centres, trade and commercial places, coastal towns, ports and religious as well as educational centres.
The business houses carried on a very profitable trade, having established relations with the European companies which had set up factories at Indian Sea-ports. We learn from the Italian traveller Manuccu that Surat was the largest port in India to which ships came from all the countries of Europe, West Asia and China. Whenever a loaded vessel arrived, the Hindu traders went aboard, and enquired whether the captain would sell the entire cargo of the ship. They made payment either in cash or furnished goods in exchange.
Other foreign visitors described the large number of cargo ships which came to Surat, Cambay and other coastal towns. They also referred to the various handicrafts, such as ivory bracelets for women. Great merchant princes like Virji Vora of Surat (17th century), Santidasa Jawahari of Ahmedabad, Haji said Beg (17th century), Manohardasa (A.D. 1630). Malay Chetty of the East coast and a host of others were famous as financiers, exporters and importers. Many of them had ships of their own and often lent large sums of money to the Mughal princes.
Trade and commerce promoted the development of urban centres. Agra, Patna, Allahabad, Tatta, Jammu, Ajmer, Khandesh, Coromandel and Kanniyakumari were great centres of commercial activities. Abul Fazl wrote that Kabul and Kandhar were the twin gates of Hindustan, the one leading to Turkistan and the other to Persia. The caravans for these places and beyond were made up in Lahore and Multan, which were great marts partly for this reason. Goa, Calicut, Kochin, Masulipatam, Pulicut, Nagappattinam, Satgaon and Sripur served the purpose of sea-borne trade. Chittagong was a base for pirates and was more closely associated with Arakan than with Bengal. The coming of European companies played a great role in the development of urban centres during Mughal times.
Medieval India had a large class of professional moneylenders, known as Sahukars, Mahajans and Sarrafs. They engaged in money-lending of all types, from usurious loans to the discounting of hundis. Urban centres were known for industrial activities. The smith’s craft in gold, silver, bronze, iron, copper and many alloys was highly developed. Besides ornaments, the craftsmen produced agricultural implements, weapons of war, domestic utensils and bronze, silver and copper statues of gods and goddesses, in large quantities. The ordinary weavers (Julahas) formed the largest group among the artisans. The muslin of Dacca enjoyed a high reputation for its fine texture and light weight. Fine cloth of many varieties was also produced at Varanasi, Mau, Agra, Malwa and Gujarat. Silk fabrics woven at Ahmedabad enjoyed a high reputation. Abul Fazl also notices the silk-weaving industry of Lahore, Agra and Fatehpur Sikri.
