Answer : Many types of religious organizations exist in modern societies. Sociologists usually group them according to their size and influence. Categorized this way, three types of religious organizations exist: church (ecclesia and denomination), sect, and cult.

In the academic study of religion, cults can be defined as new movements that appear to represent considerable estrangement from, or indifference to, the older religious traditions; indeed, many do not at all resemble sectarian secession from an older tradition. The difference between cults and sects is that cults represent a more radical break with and rejection of the teachings and beliefs of established faith traditions. In contrast, sects are more like offshoots of the major faithtradition.

A sect is a relatively small religious organization that is not closely integrated into the larger society and that often conflicts with at least some of its norms and values. For example, in the beginning Islam was classically divided into three major sects. These political divisions are well known as Sunni, Shia and Kharijites. Each sect developed several distinct jurisprudence systems reflecting their own understanding of the Islamic law during the course of the history of Islam.

Cults are similar to sects but differ in at least three respects. First, they generally have not broken away from a larger denomination and instead originate outside the mainstream religious tradition. Second, they are often secretive and do not proselytize as much. Third, they are at least somewhat more likely than sects to rely on charismatic leadership based on the extraordinary personal qualities of the cult’s leader. The major world religions, including Christianity, Islam, and Judaism, and denominations such as the Mormons all began as cults. For example, Scientology was founded in 1952 by science fiction author L. Ron Hubbard, based on Hubbard’s system of Dianetics, which he called “the modern science of mental health”. It is deemed as church in some countries like US while some other countries have deemed Scientology a cult and refuse to recognize its legitimacy. The cult of Heaven’s Gate made the headlines in March of 1997 when 39 members of the cult killed themselves, in hopes of reaching a spaceship which was following in the wake the newly-discovered Hale-Bopp Comet.

Answer : As a cultural process, fashion is responsible for locating individuals within peer group or community to identify and make such group as reference group as Robert K. Merton hypothesized to explain individual behavior in social structure.

The concept of “reference group” has been used in several ways, but its utility can be maximized when it signifies that group whose presumed perspective is used by an actor as the frame of reference in the organization of his perceptual field. In other words, it is people whose attitudes, behavior, beliefs, opinions, preferences, and values are used by an individual as the basis for his or her judgment.

One does not have to be a member of a reference group to be negatively or positively influenced by its characteristics. Reference groups provide the benchmarks and contrast needed for comparison and evaluation of group and personal characteristics.

In order to understand fashion in society Merton’s reference group concept can be used, as he explained the concepts such as non-membership/membership reference group, comparative reference group, multiple reference groups as an appropriate social tools to explain the fashion change in society and inter and intra group relationships among individuals and groups.

Social comparison on fashion takes place; where people begin to compare the group to which they belong to other groups. For instance, a woman who categorises herself as belonging to the ‘western-centric’ subculture will begin to dress in a certain way – by paying close attention to or emphasising or incorporating fabrics and accessories that are considered to be Western – and she will adopt the value system of this group with exceptions to things that are in conflict with her other identities.

Answer : Our present development process is the which who looks at environment and poor people as drag on the development process. According to Amratya Sen we must see development as the process to increase freedom of human beings. As environment protection itself is a way to increase human freedom, then the development process itself will become environment and people friendly. It is the tribal and mostly the village people who are affected by the displacement induced by development.

Various development projects which involve displacement are dams, roads, industries and mining. The problem is not only displacement but the failure of rehabilitating them. A study by Walter Fernandes shows that only 18% of tribal people were rehabilitated. Today, of the displaced people 50% are tribal people. In many cases they got the land on paper but not in practice because of local dominance of higher castes. The life of tribal people is intrinsically linked with the environment and forests.

They are heavily dependent on the forests and live in a symbiotic relationship with them. Once they are displaced the tribal people lose their natural setting of rivers, forests and are devoid of minor forest produce. Instead they are forced into the mainstream economy where they feel total alienation. As they don’t have any skills, the men end up in informal sector and get exploited. Women also enter informal sector and few end up in prostitution. The children drop out of schools and end up being child labor. Thus, for the development of country we are sacrificing the development of tribal people. This is not inclusive development and will lead to more conflicts in future. Though, we have enacted a new land acquisition act and it will improve the situation but the fault lies with the overall way we treat the tribal people. We must integrate them in the society rather than assimilate them.

Answer : According to Parsons, social system is an analytical tool to study society and its various parts. A system is a unified whole made up of interdependent parts called as subsystems. These subsystems are connected with each other in a patterned way. Every system has a well defined goal which defines its boundaries.

Beyond the boundaries there is environment which is always in flux. There exists dynamic equilibrium as system always tries to maintain equilibrium but as the system tries to orient itself to equilibrium the environment changes.

Every system has universal needs and derived needs. Universal needs are necessary for a system to exist but the derived needs may vary. He identifies four universal needs viz. adaptation, goal attainment, integration and latency.

Today, Parsons’ social system approach is very much relevant. In this interconnected world where all the culture and various systems in a culture affect each other, Parsons provides a conceptual framework of analysis and the ways to solve the conflict. For example, if two subsystems of a system are not working properly, there is a need for latency for its proper functioning. Consider family as a system. The changes in economy are affecting the changes in family system. Thus, various subsystems are affecting each other.

We can understand even Naxalism using Parsons’ approach. The social life of tribal people was affected by the need for economic development. Though the changes in their life happened but there were no efforts made to sustain them so as to ensure their economic dependence. As there was lack of coordination among various systems there occurred conflict.

Even globalization, urbanization, changes in caste system and many other phenomena can be easily understood by Parsons’ social system approach. Though Parsons didn’t do any empirical work while giving his systems approach but still this approach is relevant today.

Answer : Science refers to a systematic body of changing and certified knowledge based on observable facts. Religion refers to the institutionalized interaction between human beings and a non-empirical entity

where the human being propitiates and the entity reciprocates.

The relation between science and religion is very complex. At the same time they exist as competing systems and reinforcing each other. Merton showed that modern science emerged with the help of Protestantism. It provided legitimacy to the pursuit of this-worldly goals. Thus religion contributed to the growth of science. But, as science developed, it questioned the logic of religion. For example, science doesn’t approve of praying to God if somebody is sick. Rather, it believes in providing the best possible treatment.

There are various parameters where science and religion are opposite to each other. In science it is the sensory system which is supreme but religion is based on super sensory state and goes beyond sensation. Science is individualistic whereas religion is collectivistic and there is unquestioning acceptance of authority in religion. Science is essentially utilitarian in nature while religion is essentially non-utilitarian. Science is neutral towards morality but religion essentially reflects morality.

Science is useful in increasing efficiency and making the life easier by providing constant inventions. But, today in this fast moving world, there is environment of uncertainty which creates anxiety in the minds of people. As science can’t relieve this anxiety because there is no finality in science, there is only probability. According to Malinowsky, it is the religion which relieves the anxiety by promising absolute rewards. It is truly said that “Science without religion is lame and religion without science is blind”.

Answer : During past three-four decades, on the global map, religious revivalism has emerged in the form of a new social-religious phenomenon whose aim is to reestablish lost prestige of religion by expanding its importance in all areas of social life. Today in contemporary world, religious revivalism activities on one side has freed people from identity crisis due to modern values and on other side by providing spiritual sight, which plays an important role in providing mental peace from physical, mental problems caused by fast and stressful life.

Today in this time of market economy, religion has also come into its influence area. Today due to marketization of religion, increased number of religious institutions, leaders, sects are preparing environment for
religious revivalism.

People have expanded material attitude in all areas of life due to increasing influence of money. Due to present situation people feel alienation. In such situation religion tries to remove mental dissatisfaction by providing a spiritual base. Today in globalization, religious revivalism process gets speeded due to increasing information sources.

A big market for increasing religious activity has been erected due to increasing number of different religious channel, online selling of religion-related things, quick payment of donation and prasad or blessed food. Increasing effect of religious orthodoxy in form of globalised incidents has also increased the nature of religious revivalism. Today, a competitive mentality between religions due to activeness of different religious reformist organizations established by different religious reformist movements are becoming pioneer of religious revivalism. Today it can be seen the efforts of religious revivalism against terrorists activities and atrocities in the name of religion.

Answer : Durkheim in his sociological study of religion presented sociological perspective of religion in place of traditional theory of religion like nature worship, animism, monotheism and evolutionary perspective. Durkheim presented sociological theory of religion by studying totemism of Arunta tribes in Australia. He added primary and profane religion to this which keeps important place in life of Arunta tribes.

According to Durkheim, totemism was elementary form of religion not because of being established first. Totemism was simple from organizational view, so it was believed to be elementary form of religion. Since totemism can be understood without explaining the features of ancient religion, so it was a fundamental element also.

According to Durkheim, Arunta tribes is divided into many clans and each clan has its own totem which may be any animal, bird, tree or any lifeless thing to which members of clan attach their origin and experience,special emotional relation and give special respect to them.

It is possible to connect with totem without total practices or rites. To connect with totem which is treated as sacred, people should be pure internally as well as externally. As per Durkheim, this totem has no any internal qualities or supreme power. In fact the source of power of this totem is society.

That’s why totemism is not worship of any ancestor, animal or bird but of society. In this way Durkheim by connecting religion with sacred thing and society as a source of this sacredness has tried to establish religion as a manifestation of religious beliefs and it represents class consciousness. Society is worshipped in the name of religion.

In this way, Durkheim in his study of totemism has tried to represent the reality of religion. According to Durkheim, “religion is a system of beliefs and practices related to sacred thing, which unite into one single moral community, all those who adhered to them”. From above explanation it is clear that sacred is established by society.

In this way society is worshiped in the name of sacred. When any society collectively performs some rites, then a sense of collectivism develops in them. Special rules and ideals related with rites gives direction to the society and convert it into a moral community.

In this way Durkheim, according to functionalist view, by advocating totemism as elementary form of religion and developing a sense of collectivism in the society, proves its functional role.

Answer : According Max weber, sect is a newly formed religious group that form to protest elements of their parent religion. A sect has distinctive religious, political or philosophical beliefs. Although in the past it was mostly used to refer to any organisation that breaks away from larger one to follow a different set of rules and principles and later on expanded in modern culture as organisation.

Whereas the cult refers to a new religious movement whose beliefs and practices are considered abnormal. The word cult denote a system of ritual practices and first used in 17th century denoting homage paid to a divinity. The organisation of cult is concerned with a particular personality and is being influenced by their values, ideas, philosophy, etc.

On the other hand religion is a collection of cultural systems, belief systems and world views that establishes a symbols which relate humanity to spirituality and sometimes to moral values. It also give meaning to life or the universe and has exercised most profound influence over man’s thought like immemorial time. The development of religion has taken different forms in different cultures. Some religions place an emphasis of belief while other emphasize practice.

Durkheim in his famous book “Elementary forms of Religious Life” has used two important concepts sacred and profane. According to Durkheim all societies have been divided into two categories, the sacred and profane. According to him religion is unified system of belief and practices related to sacred things. The sacred thing may be anything like a rock, a tree, etc. and there is nothing speciality about it. This sacred thing is a symbol of society and represent society’s sentiment. According to Durkheim religion plays important role in cohesion of society.

In absence of religion there will be no social order, social control, social solidarity. Thus, it is a vital constituent of society. Durkheim held the view that the main function of religion is group cohesion often performed by collectively attended rituals. He asserted that these group meeting provide a special kind of energy that makes group member to lose their individuality and feel united with the gods and thus with the group.

Answer : Cultural pluralism is a term used when small groups within a larger society maintain their unique cultural identities, and their values and practices are accepted by the wider society.

Example of such case is United states which has a relative strong dominant culture which includes strong elements of nationalism, a sporting culture and an artistic culture. In pluralist culture, unique groups not only co-exist side by side but also consider qualities of other groups as traits worth having in the dominant culture. A successful pluralistic society will place strong expectations of integration in its members rather than expectation of assimilation. The existence of such institutions and practices is possible if the cultural communities are accepted by the larger society in a pluralist culture and sometimes require the protection of the law. Often the acceptance of a culture may require that the new or minority culture remove some aspects of their culture which is incompatible with the laws or values of the dominant culture. The idea of cultural pluralism in the United States has its roots in the transcendentalist movement and developed by prognatist philosophers such as william James and John Dewey.

India is also a classic example of cultural pluralism both in letter and spirit. Indian society is a synthesis of complex cultures, religions, languages, people belonging to different caste and communities. As far as the plurality of Indian culture is concerned, it is a miniature of world as it contains Hinduism, Jainism, Budhism, Islam, Christianity, etc.

Answer : Ethnicity refers to self consciousness of a group of people united, or closely related, by shared experience such as language, religious belief, common heritage, etc. In traditional modernization theory, ethnicity is seen as an obstacle and claims to ethnic identity as anti-developmental. According to this view, when people cling to their ethnic identities, they do not identify with the state. This is particularly true for poor nations like Sub-Saharan countries. In poor countries, state is the prime mobilizer of resources for the people. But when state is hijacked by one or more ethnic groups, they use the state machinery for selfish ends as opposed to national development concerns.

In that case upward social mobility of other ethnic group suffer. Also development cannot take place in turbulent environment. Clashes between various ethnic groups undermine development pursuits. However, scholars in recent times have started arguing that issue of ethnicity can be reconciled within developmental agenda through cautious political and judicial actions because ethnicity not just pertains to ethnic loyalties and interests but also genuine human rights issues.

Answer : Science has empirical and rational basis to explain various facets of human life and to help mankind in leading a meaningful life. Religion, for thousands of years of human existence has been doing the same thing though without any empirical justification. Tylor argued that religion originated to satisfy man’s intellectual needs. For Miller, it was response to man’s emotional needs, resulting from the effect of nature upon man’s emotions. Today, it is seen in terms of its contribution in meeting the functional prerequisites or basic needs of society i.e. in fostering social solidarity, value consensus andharmony and integration of its parts by the functionalists. For them it helps to build, maintain and legitimise universes of meaning for people.

In words of A.W. Green, “Religion is not unscientific, it is only non-scientific”. Scientific truth is that which is known by the evidence of the senses. Religious truth is that which is known by revelation, by faith. Both however serve the same purpose i.e. “construction and maintenance of people’s universes” (Berger and Luckmann)

Answer : Positive Religion refers to the “scientific religion” or religion of humanity championed by Auguste Comte. Comte’s “religion of humanity “ is based upon morality and religion and not upon belief in a divine force. Comtewas opposed to the theological type of religion. The object of worship should be mankind and not God. Comte was of the opinion that a society based on positivist principles needs positive religion.

He conceived of a society directed by the spiritual power of priests of the new positive religion and leaders of bankingand industry. The new positivist order, Comte claimed, “would have love as its principle, order as its basis and programme as its aim.” The egoistic tendencies of mankind as evidenced in all the previous history would be replaced by altruism and by the Command ‘Live for others’.

Answer : In recent years, the belief that the onset of modernity would ultimately lead to a decline in religiousbelief- a theory known as the secularization thesis -has been challenged by what seems to be a revival of religious adherence across the world. This resurgence is characterized by the growing saliency and persuasiveness of religious beliefs, practices and discourses in both personal and public life. Social theorists and scholars see the rise in religiosity as a defensive reaction or backlash to globalization and modernization.

Increasing numbers of people who have become disenchanted with the seemingly destabilizing effects of modernity-the fragmentation of society, the emptiness of consumerism, the breakdown of families, widespread socio-economic grievances, erosion of traditionalmorality and values, social dislocation and culture shock-are turning to religion to establish meaning and order in an otherwise rapidly changing and often confusing world.

Forces of modernity and globalization have not affected all the people equally. Instead of bridging the gaps between rich and the poor, the spaces in between, seem to have widened.

Although the resurgence of religion is taking place in countries at different levels of economic development, for the most part, religiousfervour is inversely related to material progress. Another effect of rising religiosity is manifested in the accompanying emergence of fundamentalist trends in almost every major world religion.

Infact, globalization is itself a kind of fundamentalism as it imposes a single vision of economic world with readymade market oriented recipes, ignoring the diversity of the national situations. And this religious fundamentalism, in its most extreme form, has manifested itself as religiously motivated terrorism.

Religious fundamentalism leads to strong feelings of self-righteousness and feelings of otherness towards followers of other faiths. It leads to the belief that truth is the sole monopoly of one’s own religion to a feeling of theological superiority. In case of globalization, such fundamentalists have in common a fear that their way of life is under threat from the unwelcome liberalization of social moves and values. As a result, these fundamentalists, believing themselves to be beleaguered, seek to alter prevailing sociopolitical realities by trying to reform society either by violent or non- violent means in accordance with what theybelieve are suitable religious tenets and to change the laws, morality, social norms and, if necessary,the political configuration to build a more traditional society.

Answer : Religion is concerned with world beyond the senses and belief is its essence. Such beliefs can neither be proved nor disapproved. But science is concerned with world known to us in terms of our sense perception.Thus, a scientist refuses to accept anything which cannot be tested.

However, this conflict does not concern those who look at science and religion from a different perspective. If one holds view that religion deals with first causesand science with immediate causes, there is no possibility of any conflict. Thus seen from this point of view, a scientist can be devoutely religious man and at the same time a good scientist.

However, conflict between science and religion arises when religion seeks to explain natural or physical phenomena and such explanation are proved to be devoid of any meaning and base.

But science insists that a theory survives only if it passes through rigorous tests. Thus as science expands, there will be conflict between both. As for example, only a shortwhile ago the origin of man on the earth was unknown to the human intellect, then religious belief filled in the gap by giving a very precise account of man’s origin.

The account was believed because it was thought to be divinely revealed. But eventually scientific investigation began to bring out origin of man and then conflict began. As science and technology advances, there is a decline in the worship of god as instrument to control natural forces but in a simple society people use religion to explain natural forces as they are on the mercy of environment.

At the same time in modern society the importance of religion as explanation to control natural forces has declined. Thus, religion is only concerned with other less worldly matter concerning the meaning of life in such modern society. Commenting on this Kingsley Danis states that as religionlooses its battle with science, it retreats to higher level.

Thus, people turn to religion today not for explanation of worldly matters but as a source of love and emotional security. Science has taken over the role of religion to explain and influence events. But science cannot become a substitute for religion in its role of providing emotional support to people who need it.

Answer : There are various views and consideration about the origin of religion and its practices in pre-modern society. The thinkers like David Hume, Max Muller and Giddings claimed that the religion is a creation of man which is based on the illusion and fear. On the other hand, Herbert Spencer and Tylor argued that religion originated primarily in ghost fear and that aninism lies at the very basis of religion. Tylor quotes religion has evolved through the sequence of animism, polytheism and monotheism. According to Marret, “Animism, belief in impersonal power deisgnated as Mana which preceded animism should be regarded as underlying all religion. According to Roberrson Smith ancient religion consisted primarily of institutions and practices i.e., rites and ceremonies which are to be regarded as the elementory forms of religion. Durkheim has argued the totem is the core out of which religion develops. In his book “Elementary Forms of Religious Life”, he concluded that society itself is the ultimate source of religion and thus arrived at sociological explanation of religion. Summer and Keller argued that religion arose in response to definite needs adjustment to the supernatural and imaginary environment and adaptation which is just as impelling. According to them had there been aleotory elements, religion might not have come into existence.

Thus, origin of religion cannot be traced to single source. It cannot be placed in any single element fear, belief in impersonal power, rites and ceremonies or response to definite needs. Neither need nor emotion alone can explain its origin. The beginning of religion is as old as human consciousness. There was no primitive society which was without religion. Like other social institutions, religion also arose from the intellectual power of man in response to certain self-needs of man or because of the condition accompanying his life on earth.

Answer : Though religion is a highly personal thing, yet it has a social role to play. It has been a powerful agency in society and performed many important social functions. According to Arnold W. Green, religion has three universal functions. Firstly, it rationalizes and makes bearable individual suffering in the Known World. Secondly, it enhances self-importance; and thirdly, it help to knit the social values of a society into a cohesive whole.

The following social functions of religion may be outlined:

I. Explains individual suffering: Man does not live by knowledge alone. He is an emotional creature as well. Religion serves to soothe the emotions of man in times of his suffering and disappointments and contributes to the integration of his personality. There is a limit to which society can go, guided by sheer rationality. In this way religion gives release from sorrow and release from fear. It enables the individual to interpret any catastrophe as intermediate and secondary. It helps man to bear his frustrations and integrate his personality.

II. Enhances Self-importance: Religion expands one's self to infinite proportions. Man unites himself with the infinite and feels ennabled. Through unity with the infinite the self is made majestic and triumphant. Man considers himself the noblest work of god with whom he shall be united and his self thus becomes grand and luminous. Society also gains from the self-flattery provided by religious belief. Religion assures man a greater reward in the after life as a compensation for wordly failures. Such kind of assurance drains off much discontent and members are encouraged to contribute to play their part in society.

III. A Source of Social Cohesion: Religion is the ultimate Source of Social Cohesion. The primary requirement of society is the common possession of social values by which individuals control the actions of self and others and through which society is perpetuated. These social values are never scientifically demonstrated but emanate from religious faith. Religion is the foundation upon which these values rest. Science and technology cannot create these values. As a matter of fact these values are more effective if they are not examined. It is religion that asks man to renounce unsocial activities and requires him to accept limitations upon his wants and desires. Love and service are two great teachings of religion. Religion has always generated a sense of belongings in society. Blackmar and Gilten have strongly defended religion emphazing its great socializing values and its values as a means of control in society primitive as well as civilized.

IV. Social Welfare: Religion has also performed some other service to humanity among which Sumner and Keller included the provision of work, the accumulation of capital and the creation of a leisure class, the priest-hood often dedicated to art and culture. The priests laid the foundations of medicine. Religion has served humanity through the spreading of education. The scriptures-Ramayana, Bhagvad Gita, Quran and Bible are great literary Works and storehouse of knowledge. It has also emphaziged benevolence and forbearance. It also created the habit of charity among the people who opened many charitable institutions like hospitals, rest-houses, temples to help the needy and the poor.

V. Agency of Social Control: Religions emphasize the consequences resulting from behaviour. Rewards or punishments follow approved or disapproved actions. Religions support the folkways and customs by placing the powerful sanctions of the supernatural behind them. They make certain acts not only offences against society but against God as well. Disobedience brings condemnation from the spiritual forces. In its positive form religion provides a model for living.

VI. Religion controls and affects economic life also: Max Weber was the view that religion also influences the economic system of the believes. Thus, according to them, capitalism grew is the Protestant nations like England, U.S.A. and Holland. It did not grow in Italy and Spain where the people are Catholics. The Hindus lay great-stress on spiritual progress than on material progress. Hence materialism could not grow in India.

VII. Friendship Function: Religion also provides a good opportunity for friendship. The religious congregations serve as a place for men to find their mates and for friendly association. This friendship function of religion is a vital service to adults and youth as well.

Dysfunction of Religion: Despite integrating and unifying force of religion in human society, it has also dysfunctional nature. Marx called religion the opiate of the masses’ which has kept them in degrading subjugation. The masses are taught to submit to their poor lot in life and remain in that station of life in which God wanted them to be. The history of religion is mostly the history of persecution. Wars have been fought in its name. Often progress has been stopped in the name of religion. It has degenerated in dogmatism and bigotism denying freedom of thought. It has favoured war and poverty, exploitation and fatalism, prostitution and idleness and advocated such practices as cannibalism, suicide, slavery, untouchability, and incest. There is hardly a vice which religion has not at one time or another actively supported. Blackmar and willier wrote that religion, ever conservative and dogmatic, has tried time and again to crush the spirit of earnest men seeking to discover the truth and to prevent them from revealing newly discovered facts. It retarded the advance of science it interfered with the free inquiry of scholars; it suppressed the democratic aspirations of the common people.’

India and United States of America of Religious View Points: Both India and United States of America are multireligious, multicultural, democratic and pluralist society. Social functions play a very crucial role to unite to integrate and work as a cohesive force among the people. Both are very much secular i.e. every body respects other not on the basis of religious identity but humanity. There were various examples that represent the notion of co-operation in the name of humanity. For example, Hindus save people of muslim and other communities in various communal riots and vice-a-versa. Another fact is that people of one community participates in the functions of other communities that reflects toleration and respect for one another.

But on the other, religion also plays dysfunctional role because of various reasons. In India the country was partitioned in the name of religion and even today religion in the garb of communalism stands to threaten the national solidarity. The Ayodhya issue has revived the memories of 1947. The Mandir-Masjid dispute has once again engulfed the nation into communal riots. The political parties are exploiting the religious card to create vote-bankes. The same leaders have surrendered to religious militancy. Genuine religion has disappeared. It has commerciaslised and politicised. Sectarian Organisations have came up which flourish by preaching hatred for ’others’. Religious leader also have entered the play field of politics and the places of religion-temples and mosques, have become the arena of political manipulations. In United States America, we have seen the terrorist attack on World Trade Centre that was very much related to religious values and after that America had attacked on Afganisthan and Iraq in the name of terrorism. Therefore, it is necessary to separate the religious social values as a political instrument of self issness.

Answer : Science is a search for knowledge as well as method of solving problems. Both religion and science are forms of human understanding. Both science and religion are human ways to relating themselves to reality. Both science and religion try to make explicit the world of unknown. Religion is more collectively oriented than science, but science too emphasizes team spirit and cooperation of scientific community. Both science and religion claim access to truth. On many occasions in past as well as present, in many a war, both science as well religion have acted against humankind. Both religion and science prescribe qualification for their personnel.

Science insists that all phenomenon that is observed should not be accepted at face value. Its value and meaning can be discovered through experimentation. All factors (time, place, person, equipment) that can affect the result of such experiments are controlled in laboratory conditions. Science differs from religion because it belives in neutrality and objectivity. Scientific method is claimed to have annulled the subjective biases. Science believes in precision and measurement which is not possible for religion. Science brings the unknown to the level of observable reality. Religion cannot bring God to the level to observable phenomena. Scientific knowledge has more concrete application in the form of technology which might help in manupulating nature. Religion cannot establish such concrete and immediate result. Scientific knowledge and method are valid universally whereas principle of religious life differs from society to society.

Answer : The functionalists have laid bare the functions which religion performs for society. In fact, traditional society and religion stood one for the other. No aspect of traditional society was untouched by the system of religion. Religion has functions even in the modern society where the value of secularism and the process of secularistation has scuttled the role of religion. However, some sociologists like Merton are open to the fact that religion is also a source of instability and disintegration. We can examine each view critically.

According to Emile Durkheim, religion in the traditional society, reinforces collective conscience. Collective conscience is belief and idea, which are held by all members of society. It is a source of solidarity and integration of the traditional society. Durkheim says that religion reinforces collective conscience. The beliefs and ideas, which make collective conscience, are given divine and supernatural sanction. People hold them more strongly. Religion, secondly strengthens values and moral beliefs. It provides social solidarity. As the followers of one religion, people come closer and get into a communal bond. Lastly, religion is a source of social control. The ideology which is at the core of religion checks a person from committing many anti-social and deviant acts. The concept of sin, hell, divine intervention, judgement day, patience, forbearance etc prevents a person from many deviant acts.

Parsons has also noted the functions of religion in modern society. Religion, according to him, provides a guideline for human action and standards against which man's conduct can be evaluated. Parsons says that human life countenances death, uncertainty etc. Religion provides means of adjusting and coming to terms with such situations. Most importantly, religion gives meaning to life. It helps in making sense of experience. For example, it tells us why human being has been created on this planet in this vast universe and what he is expected to do.

Malinowski also discussed the functions of religion. He explained the functions of religion in context of the crises of life like birth, marriage, death etc, and in context of events which cannot be controlled and predicted like gardening which can be destroyed by rain or worm.

The examination of these arguments shows that this is exposition of only one aspect of religion. Religion is also a source of strife and feud in society. Religion not only unites and provides a basis of integration, it also divides people. Durkheim views that religion works as an instrument of social control. But religious fundamentalism in modern society proves that fanatics take law into their hands and cause colossal loss of human lives. As far as function of making this life meaningful is concerned, we can note that philosophy is a better and enlightened source. Many of our atheist and agnostic philosophers work as a source of light to what the life means. About the function of religion with respect to the crisis of life, new institutions, technologies and radical ideas have made their face less terrible. Some sociologists have also reflected on the dysfunctions of religion. Marx was one of those who denounced religion as an opium of masses. In his words, "Religion is the sight of the oppressed creature, the sentiment of a heartless world and the soul of the soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people". Religion has legitimised the oppression. It discourages the people from attempting to change their situation and leaves them to suffer silently.

Merton was also very critical of the functionalist's inability to observe the disaster which religion can cause. Merton noted that when there are more than one religion in society, we have conflict. Secondly, Merton criticizes Durkheim for his views that human society achieves its unity through possession by member's certain values and ends in common. Merton asks what is the evidence that 'non-religious' people subscribe less to those certain 'common values and ends'. Lastly, religion does not contribute for integration when religious doctrines are at odds with the non-religious values of society. They rather create tension and conflict.

The views on dysfunctions of religion raise valid issues. However, religion is not simply illusion and an instrument of social control to reinforce exploitation, as Marx would have us believe. This idea on religion is based on the European experiences of church and that too of a short period. Religion in a multi-religious society is a source of conflict but simultaneously, it teaches its followers that followers of other religious are creation of the same God and therefore they should be respected.

Thus, religion has both functional and dysfunctional aspects. Stretch­ing any aspect beyond limit will obscure the clearer picture of the issue.

Answer : Religious pluralism simply refers to the existence of several religious group or community in the society. These are Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Buddhism etc. Each religion possesses its distinct feature, which may or may not be, found in the other religions. For example, Islam does not believe in the statue worship whereas in Hindu it is the chief feature. The Christianity is the highest religious group, which constitutes about 33 percent of the world's population. Hinduism is the second largest religion of the world. About 13 percent of the world population believe in this religion. The Islam is the third major religion of the world. About 9 percent people of the world are its adherents. The Jain's population is very low. It is mainly concentrated in the urban areas. In the recent time, this religious pluralism has given birth to serveral problems such as ethinicity, racial conflict, conversion, religious fundamentalism etc. Converstion is one of the major problems, which is chiefly propagated by the Christians. The tribal people, SC, ST and poor people are mainly converted by them. All these religious communities believe in God and supernatural forces and have opted their own way to reach there.

Answer : One of the major fundamental elements of religion is the belief in the existence of supernatural agency. According to Ronald Robertson "religion refers to the existence of supernatural beings which have a governing effect on life. Melford E. Spiro adopts a similar definition when he states that religion is based on 'belief in supernatural being and in their power to assist or harm man. The second fundamental element of the religion is the practice of rituals. On this ground, Durkhiem has divided religion into Sacred and Profane. The Profane consists of ritual and ceremony. But Durkheim assumes that Sacred is the real form of religion. According to Edward Tylor, "animism" is the basic aspect of religion. He argues that religion, in the form of animism, originated to satisfy man's intellectual nature, to meet his needs and to make sense of death, dreams and visions. The another feature of religion is the totemism. It is the object which is considered sacred and thus are worshiped by the people. Thus the "Gangajal" is considered sacred by the Hindu. The religious ethos to a great extent are derived from customs, folkways, values etc. of the society. According to Parsons moral belief and value consensus are the chief constitutents of religion.

Answer : The problem of conversion first figured with the coming of Muslims. During the Muslim period converts to Islam were drawn from lower strata of society. Very few from the higher strata joined Muslim ranks since they were not given equal treatment with original Muslims. Apart from this discrimination that was followed in Indian Islam, despite the principle of equality in Islam, some Hindu coverts chose to continue on their own old life-style just like the Rajput Muslims. It was only with the coming of Arya Samaj that conversion came to be in-corporated as laid down by Dayanand Saraswati as the means by which non-Hindus could be converted into Hinduism. Although this principle was laid down, it was never vigorously pursued. It is only in recent time after the mass conversion of Harijans into Islam at Meenakshipuram in Tamilnadu that Hindu missionaries become active for winning converts to their fold. Furthermore, the coming of Christian missionaries also brought into focus the practice of conversion as Christian missionaries made it a point of civilising the ‘barbarians’. The Christian missions succeeded in winning low caste people as well as tribal mostly because of their zeal, their sense of discipline and financial resources at their disposal. In the modern time, conversion has resulted in communal tension, or communalism in India.

Answer : Our beliefs determine our thoughts and attitudes about life, which in turn direct our actions. By our actions, we create our destiny. The following nine beliefs, though not exhaustive, offer a simple summary of Hindu spirituality.

• Hindus believe in a one, all-pervasive Supreme Being who is both immanent and transcendent, both Creator and Unmanifest Reality.
• Hindus believe in the divinity of the four Vedas, the world's most ancient scripture, and venerate the Agamas as equally revealed. These primordial hymns are God’s word and the bedrock of Sanatana Dharma, the eternal religion.
• Hindus believe that the universe undergoes endless cycles of creation, preservation and dissolution.
• Hindus believe in karma, the law of cause and effect by which each individual creates his own destiny by his thoughts, words and deeds.
• Hindus believe that the soul reincarnates, evolving through many births until all karmas have been resolved, and moksha, liberation from the cycle of rebirth, is attained. Not a single soul will be deprived of this destiny.
• Hindus believe that divine beings exist in unseen worlds and that temple worship, rituals, sacraments and personal devotionals create a communion with these devas and Gods.
• Hindus believe that an enlightened master, or satguru, is essential to know the Transcendent Absolute, as are personal discipline, good conduct, purification, pilgrimage, self-inquiry, meditation and surrender in God.
• Hindus believe that all life is sacred, to be loved and revered, and therefore practice ahimsa, non-injury, in thought, word and deed.
• Hindus believe that no religion teaches the only way to salvation above all others, but that all genuine paths are facets of God's Light, deserving tolerance and understanding.

Human life is divided into four stages, and there are defined rites and rituals for each stage from birth till death.

• The First Ashrama - "Brahmacharya" or the Student Stage
• The Second Ashrama - "Grihastha" or the Householder Stage
• The Third Ashrama - "Vanaprastha" or the Hermit Stage
• The Fourth Ashrama - "Sannyasa" or the Wandering Ascetic Stage

Traditional Hinduism has two life-long dharmas that one can follow: ‘Grihastha Dharma’ (Domestic Religion) and ‘Sannyasin Dharma’ (Ascetic Religion). The ‘Grihastha Dharma’ has four goals: ‘k?ma’ (sensual pleasure), ‘artha’ (wealth and prosperity), ‘dharma’ (the laws of life), and ‘moksha’ (liberation from the cycle of births). The ‘Sannyasin Dharma’ recognizes ‘moksha’ as its ultimate goal. Hinduism is a decidedly theistic religion; the difficulty lies in determining whether it is a polytheistic, pantheistic, or perhaps even monotheistic religion. The oldest and most sacred texts, the Vedas, are chiefly concerned with mythologies and rituals related to a number of deities, most of which are identified with aspects of the natural world.

The gods of modern Hinduism include the chief gods Shiva, Vishnu and the Mother Goddess Shakti as well as a myriad of local community gods. Devotion to these various deities is based primarily on one’s region and needs, and even when devotion is given to only one, the existence of others is acknowledged.

Despite these polytheistic elements, however, many Hindus explain that the gods are various forms of a single Supreme Being. Similarly, the philosophical Hindu texts advocate a pantheistic view of ultimate reality. These texts, most notably the Upanishads, explain that there exists a single Supreme Reality, called Brahman. Brahman is often personified and presented as the One that must be sought, and can begin to sound like monotheism. “According to the tenets of Hinduism, God is one as well as many.”

Answer : A minority is defined by the social majority, i.e. those who hold the positions of power in a society. Dominant religion in a society endorses all sort of power in various sector from education, economic, health, political and social sectors make feel minority alienated in society. They face problems in all section of social structure. Religious minority groups in India are chiefly the Muslims, the Christians, the Sikhs, the Jains and the Buddhists, who have been able to preserve their group identities and have also stayed in the mainstream of national politics.

There is high rate of student’s dropout in Muslim population, as Mushrid Hassan highlight that most of the curriculums are either Hindu or Christian, as a result Muslim children fail to connect themselves with alien curriculum.

Further, medium of instruction is through either English or vernacular, therefore Muslim children suffer from linguistic disadvantage. Economically, Muslims are the most backward community with the lowest employment rate.

The minorities are not able to integrate properly in the Hindu-dominated society. There is apprehension among some sections that for enlarging its base, the Christian community is involved in converting the low caste Hindus or tribes to its own community or religion, resulting in the killing and intense conflict between the majority Hindus and the Christian minority.

This has created too much insecurity and fear among the Christian minority in India. The minorities claim that unlike their Hindu counterpart, they are relatively deprived in areas like employment, politics and social facilitation. According to them, they are poorly represented in civil services as well as in medical and engineering colleges.

The serious communal riots especially after 1960s have instilled a sense of insecurity among the Muslims and tend to push them into their narrow communal shell. The government in power also finds it difficult to provide such protection for all the members of minorities, for example to Muslims during Godhra riots, to Sikh community of Delhi under Rajiv Gandhi government

The religious minorities have to be empowered educationally and economically. The progress of the country can be achieved if all the religious communities in India live in perfect harmony.

Answer : India is a multicultural and multi-religious society. Here, followers of different religions live together. All have their own religious assumption, beliefs, thoughts and rites etc. For this type of societies, secularism is used under which different social institution become free from influence of religious beliefs and practices. In this way, to decrease increasing influence of religion in public life, efforts are on to strengthen process of secularism.

The main aim of secularization is to check the process of blind application of religion and increase its utility by giving rational, scientific explanation of religious beliefs, assumptions or rites. Today, due to increasing effect of education and development of rational mind, extensive effect of secularism has come on different religious communities. For example, social ills had come in religious assumptions like casteism, low status of women, child-marriage and sati etc. Secularism is responsible for removing this religion related rites, superstitions, etc.

Due to increasing effect of secularization, there is increased belief in rationality in people. Major loss in Yagopvitra tradition in Hindus is example of this. Today, secularization of religions are being done under which all religions have changed their theories and behavioral process according to changing needs of their members and changing situation of society.

Today, due to process of secularization modern education has been adopted by Muslims in place of Shariyat education. People belonging to all reli-gions have shed their conservative values and moved towards modernization. This can be seen in giving up outdated religious values, changes in relations between sexes, change in eating habits, giving up of taboos etc. Secularization has also brought about reduction in communal and casteist feelings. Thinking of marriage as a sacrament has reduced and there is a increase in divorce rates. There is a change in family values too. Seculari-zation has also resulted in adoption of western ways of life.

Today all religions are restricting their bigotries and trying to create peaceful environment. Although in this time of rapid economic and social changes a hindrance has come in the process of secularization because of the frequent clashes between the various religious communities. But all religions are attempting toward establishing peaceful society.

Answer : Historically Indian society was compartmentalised on the basis of caste hierarchy in which different groups assigned different occupations and privileges. The certain segments of the society who were assigned lower occupation and lower position in the caste hierarchy were oppressed and exploited by those who belonged to higher castes. Consequently economically and socially they remained poor and marginalised. During course of history there had been emerging voices against the caste system. The system however remained. During the British colonial period with the arrival of western liberal thought and socio—religious reforms also questioned the caste discrimination. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, and Mahatma Gandhi brought up the issues of caste discrimination in a significant way.

British colonial government began formulating some policies including reservation for these castes. Thus, after independence, the caste disability was put to evaluation and argued that the spirit of democracy does not favour this inequality.

Thus constitutional framework designed to provide opportunities to every segment to compete equally and constitutional provisions in the areas of education, employment, political participation are targeted.

At the same time states were given the responsibility to look at the need of deprived classes and with this the backward classes in India received the protective discrimination and it is also referred as preferential policy in the form of reservation. The policy of reservation in India has accorded reservation to scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other backward castes.

Though the previously instituted reservation of seats in educational and technical institutions and jobs for SC and STs caused no problems but the inclusion of other backward classes caused resentment among the people and debate pertaining to reservation. M.N. Srinivas observed that reservation policy extended to OBC has led to dominance of dominates and positive discrimination has given to casteism. Andre Beteille has also the view that reservation policy is not helpful in discrimination as it will further consolidate inequality and ultimately it will affect unity of the Indian society benefitting to all people of reservation category. Among the tribal groups, few people have been benefitted and consequently in STs and inequality is on the rise.

Some also argued that, the Indian government in the name of creating a casteless, secular society and to compensate the injustice meted out by the so-called higher caste to oppressed, downtrodden, economically poor, educationally backward masses of India, has created a plethora of new caste discrimination. These new castes are classified as backward classes, scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. These new castes are being protected by the quota system or reservation policy for widening their educational and employment opportunities. These people are preferred to all other groups for getting admissions to colleges, universities and getting selected for jobs. Thus protective discrimination is further on the way of producing discrimination in the society.

Answer : Religious Revivalism: Religious revivalism can be said to be a process whereby important religious phenomena are revived either in public or private spheres of activities. In recent years religion as phenomena is making a comeback all over the world and India is also not an exception. Religious revivalism is a consequence of many factors- social, economic, political and also religious.

Religious revivalism can take form of ethnic identity movement based on religious ideology. Lack of development, disparity in development process, political goals, political factionist etc may be a cause for it.

Urbanization and industrialization also have not halted this process. Milton Singer’s study of Madras city proved that religious phenomena were very much thriving in urban areas.

The anonymity and heterogeneity in urban areas are causing identity crisis among individuals. Hence more and more middle class people are attracted to the phenomena of religious revivalism.

Religious fundamentalism and communalism are the next levels of development of religious revivalism. It may also take a violent form as manifested in communal violence.

Answer : Minority groups are those which are distinct identities in a community. Such groups are likely to suffer from disadvantages due to prejudice or discrimination. The term ‘minority group’ as commonly used is not technical and indeed it is very often used to refer to categories of people rather than groups, and sometimes to majorities rather than minorities.

For example, though women are neither a group, nor minority, some writers classify them as minority group, because supposedly a male-oriented society discriminates against women.

On the other hand, a group which is privileged or not discriminated against but which is a numerical minority would rarely be called a minority group. Thus, as the term is often used, a minority group need be neither a minority nor a group, so long as it refers to a category of people who can be identified by a sizeable segment of the population as objects for prejudice or discrimination.

Minority groups like Muslims and Christians have nurtured prejudice against majority Hindus in India. The prejudice stems from the fact that they apprehend in the name of secularization, the government run by majority Hindus is trying to annihilate their religious interests.

The ancient Indian Civilization has been dominated by religion; but under the influence of westernization. It is becoming increasingly secular.

Under the influence of secularization the influence of religion debuted over social institutions, traditions and practices not only of minority groups but also of majority groups, have been subjected to be weighed against utilitarianism and personal predilections governing human behaviors.

After independence the Indian government has adopted the ideal of secularism.

Unfortunately, however, in post-independent India, there has been total politicization of religion. In fact, the country began its first day of independence, with communal strife stalking the entire northern India.

Thousands of people were deprived of their homes and hearths just because some one drew imaginary boundaries between them and asked them to return to the place they belong.

But Muslims, like Hindus, have a hoary history in India. In fact, the minority groups, whether based a religion or ethnic identities have determinedly identified with the Indian cause that it is difficult to segregate the Indian from the Hindu or Muslim or Christian.

But politicians as they are to safe guard their own interests have tried to exploit feelings at times due to fear of the majority group swamping their interests, and have forced them to fight. In fact, in recent years, this tenor in Indian Politics has become greatly visible.

Answer : Religion has a social aspect and social role to play in civil society. It has been a powerful agency in society and performed many important social functions. Civil society is given freedom, liberty and fraternity to the citizens of the country. It has a moral values and humanistic religion to work for the social structure of the society. So far Indian society is concerned, constitution has given a broader scope to the people of the nation on the basis of secular values. But on the other, India is a multicultural, multi religious and multilingual society. Despite of the multireligious nature everybody of any religious community has great respect of the people of other religious community. They always participate in various religions functions and festivals of other religious community. If fact, Hindu religion is based on the notion of toleration and human values. They always help people to other religious communities of any worst situation and Vice-a-versa. According to Arnold W.Gree, religion has three universal functions. Firstly, it rationalizes and makes bearable individual suffering at the known world. Secondly, it enhances self-importance; and thirdly, it helps to knit the social values of a society into a cohesive whole. At the same time, it has emphasized benevolence and forbearance. It also created the habit of charity among the people who opened many charitable institutions like hospitals, rest-houses, temples to help the needy and the poor.

Answer : In the Muslim dominated Kashmir, the Kashmiri Pandits constitute a major Hindu-minority group. Due to the Pakistani sponsored terrorism in the valley, they are facing numerous problems. In a number of incidents, the Kashmiri Pandit and the other community have been largely killed. They are given threatening by the terrorist organisations to leave the valley. A large number of Hindus are, therefore, migrating to the nearby other cities where they are facing the problem of food, shelter and employment. They have already lost their traditional property and forced to live in the refugee camps. They are not getting proper education and a peaceful living condition. According to a report, due to the fear of terrorist attack there is the rise in the number of heart patient in the valley. The frequent occurance of war and military action have made them psychologically abnormal. They, first need safety, then employment. The widpread poverty, illiteracy, deviation and involvement of youth in criminal behaviour may be resolved only through the proper elimination of terrorism from the valley. It requires diplomatic and political efforts. They are the innocent people and must be provided proper safety-valve in and outside Kashmir. In this, the role of Muslim community living in the valley is of worth importance.

Answer : The minority community refers to those communities which are relatively low in numerical strength than the major Hindu community in India. Thus, Hindu is the majority community and Muslims, Sikhs, Christians etc. are the minority communities. In the religious minority community, the adherents of a religious group are very limited in comparison to the majority community. According to the religious census of 1991, there are 672.5 million Hindus, 95.2 million Muslims, 18.9 million Christians, 16.2 million Sikhs, 6.3 million Buddhists and 3.3 million Jains in India. The population of the six major religions; Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism and Jainism of India has increased but Jains have increased only marginally. Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh together account for almost 90 percent of the Jains. Muslim constitute about 11.4 percent of the total population and occupy the status of largest minority group in India. Similarly, Christian, Sikh and Buddhist constitute 2.4, 2.0 and 0.7 per cent of the population respectively.

Under the secular ideology of the Constitution, these minority communities have been provided independence like Hinduism in exercising the religious rights. Equality before law and equal protection of law have been given to them. In spite of these facilitation, the minority communities have to face several problems. Firstly, they are not able to integrate properly in the Hindu dominated society. In the process of enlarging their religion, some communities, especially Christian and Muslim are involved in converting the low caste Hindus or tribes to their own community or religion. Recently this has resulted in the killing and intense conflict between the majority Hindu and the minority. Some Christian nuns (Priests) have allegedly been raped by the Hindu men which is disintegrating the community sentiments. The another dimensions is that they are claiming for equal distribution of social rewards and position. Unlike their Hindu counterpart, they say, they are relatively deprived in areas like employment, politics and social facilitation. In fact, their claim is not due and rational because the Muslims, Sikhs and Christians of India have been adequately provided various socio-econmic and religious facilities.

In relation to communal rights, Muslims feel that they are discriminated against, and feel insecure in terms of life and property and Hindus attempt to destroy their cultural identity and distinctiveness. There are some Muslim who hold that there are some organisations like Vishawa Hindu Parishad, R.S.S., Shiv Sena, Bajrang Dal, Bhartiya Janta Party etc. which compel Muslims to adopt Hindu culture on the basis of religious rigidity. They also want that they should accept their heroes, Shivaji and Maharana Pratap and decry Aurangzeb and other bigoted leaders. Although reverse is also true that Hindus also presume that there are some Muslim parties, i.e., Muslim League, Jamat-e-Islami etc. which motivate uneducated backward Muslim for communal outbursts on the basis of religion. Nirad C. Chaudhary observes regarding education and educated Muslims that they are most elusive and apprehensive. There is a common view among Hindus that Muslims are disloyal to India in all spheres of life. But Arvind Kala refutes it and says that all over the world immigrants feel an affinity for their mother country and religious minority for co-religionsists of another country. For instance Indian community in the US and Eastern Africa invite Lata Mangeshkar or Amitabh Bachchan for performances, but not a White rock star or Negro performer. This does not mean they are disloyal to the US or Kenya. So when an Indian Muslim feels an affinity for Pakistan, it does not mean, he is disloyal to India. But there are some secular minded people who believe that elite on both sides makes use of religion rigidly for securing political and economic ends. Election studies reveal that nomination of the candidates have been done on the basis of religion and caste and voters are motivated on the basis of religious slogans and pamphelets. Along with it, this is also true that communal tension is generated on the occation of religious festival. Imtiaz Ahmad assumes that after conversion to Islam, Hindus have given a new turn to communal situation in the country.

Answer : The word ‘Secularism’ has been formulated with the Latin word secular, which means the present age or generation. Defining secularisation, Dr. M.N. Srinivas writes, ‘The term secularisation implies what was previously regarded as religious, now ceasing to be such, and it also implies a process of differentiation which results in the various aspects of society; economic; political, legal and moral, becoming increasingly discrete in relation to each other. Thus, the process of secularization is anti-religious. In other words as secularisation increases, religion, loses hold. The Constitution of India has made India a secular state. The word secular was added to the Preamble of the Constitution with the passing of fourty second amendment act. India is of course having faith in different religion, but the country as a whole has not any religion as such. Each and every religion shall have full right to develop and grow, without injuring any other religion. The Indian sociologists have assumed the following features of secularism in India; decrease in religionalism differentiation, rational and scientific attitudes. The main causes of secularisation in India are; renaissance, growth of science; expansion of modern education, trade and commerce; reformation; social and religious reforms movements; urbanisation; legislation, Indian Constitution, western culture etc.

Answer : The religious minority groups in India chiefly refers to the Muslim, the Christian, the Sikh etc. The Constitution of India has Provided him some safeguards. The preamble describes our Republic inter alia as secular. The concept of secularism in the Constitution is not to religion. It only means that there is no state religion, there is the equal respect for and protection of all religions, no one is to be discriminated on grounds of religion and everyone is guaranteed full and equal freedom of religion. Article 25 to 28 provides to all persons guarantees to the right to freedom of religion in all its aspects. Article 25 lays down that all persons and not only citizens are equally entitled to freedom of conscience and the right to freely profess, practice and propagate religion. The article 26 bestows a fundamental right on all religious denominations and section there of to establish and maintain institutions for religious and charitable purpose, to manage their own affairs in matters of religion, to own, acquire and administer property. Article 27 says no persons shall be compelled to pay any taxes for expenses on promotion and maintenance of any religion. Article 28 forbids totally any religious instruction being imparted in educational institutions wholly maintained by state funds.

Article-29 guarantees to every section of the citizen residing any where in India and having a distinct language, script or culture, the right to conserve the same. No citizen can be denied admission to any educational institution maintained or aided by the state on grounds only of religion, race, caste or language.

Although, the marginal heading of the article uses the term ‘minorities’, it has not been mentioned in the text of the article and it has been held that it is equally available to any section of the citizen-whether in minority or majority.

Article 30 (1) says that all minority, whether religious or linguistic, shall have the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice. Clause 1(A) added by the 14th amendment, in effect provides that if the property of any such institutions is acquired, the compensation paid would be proper and adequate so that in matter of giving aid, the state shall not discriminate against minority-managed institution.

Article 30 is strictly in nature of minority rights i.e., one intended to protect the right of minorities. Also the right of minorities under this article is to establish and administer educational institutions of the choice and includes the right to choose the medium of instruction, curricula, subject to be taught.

The anomic situation obtaining due to uneven development and perpetuation of inequalities have also strengthened the fundamentalist forces. Thus, with the process of modernisation, the traditional institutions like religion are being increasingly strengthened and secularism in social life is increasingly becoming a distinct goal. The religious funamentalism in India may be viewed in connnection with Hindutwa ideology. While the Hindutwa acts as a cohesive force within the Hinduism but on the other side the two polar opposite ideology most often clash with that of Hindu. On the issue of Ram Janambhumi, Babri Maszid, these two polar opposite religious ideologies have no consensus. It is considered that the underlying factor behind the conflict is the political back up by the politicians who try to make use of both the minority and majority community as a vote bank. The other dimension of religious fundamentalism in the India is that missionary activities has recently resulted in violence in several parts amongst parties which are closely affiliated to either minority or majority community. The conversion of the low caste Hindu into Christian by the missionaries has recently resulted in violence in several parts of the country. The social prejudice and religious superiority are hampering the process of secularization in India. To maintain the unity in diversity, mutual tolerance and integration are necessary. The roles of Mullah, Godmen and politicians may be crucial in this regard. People to people contact, social consciousness, abolition of illiteracy etc. may prove useful in confidence building measures. The secular values must be internalised by the people and political parties.

Answer : Pluralism simply refers to the existence of several religious, racial and caste groups in the society. Traditionally, Indian society was a plural society. In this type of society maintaining social solidarity and cohesion is a rather difficult job. There are more social differentiation and heterogeneity in the society. The social values, customs, folkway, mores etc. of the different religious and racial groups are greatly different. Hence, there are the lack of collective conscience and universalistic values. Thus, there is the diversity in the social, economic and political aspect of life of the men. But unity in diversity has been the cultural characteristic of the Indian society. The secular and democratic values and the composite culture of society has greatly made unification of the diverse religious and ethnic groups of society. The Indian Constitution and legal code of conduct have provided the equality before law and equal protection to all the religious communities irrespective of caste, creed and race. Freedom of religion (Art-25) has been given to all the people living in India. Thus, the Indian citizen have greatly overcome the mutual conflict and antagonism and have always shown unity. In case of crisis and threat to our nation we all become more united.

Answer : The communal tension, mutual antagonism and conflict among the different religious group have frequently occurred in India. In 1961, in Aligarh Muslim University, in 1963 Hazratbal Mosque in Jammu & Kashmir, in 1966 in Maharashtra riots occured, in 1969, serious riots broke out in Ahmedabad and problem was created when herd of cows which belonged to Hindu temple injured few Muslim boys near a mosque. It is estimated that about 600 people were killed in riots. But in the plural society, it is difficult to ensure unity. The clashes of particularistic interest maybe often traced. Thus, the history of communal riots and tensions are more frequent in India. In spite of the facilitation and assistance to the several religious communities, they are not following the National mainstream culture. They are keeping aloof and leaving the impression that it is the majority that makes them realise that their religion is in danger. In case they wish to preserve their religion and also their culture and civilisation they should unite and make every effort so that the various religious communities come together. To abolish the communal problems and tension, it is essential to develop the national culture, and political parties and leaders should make sincere efforts not to select candidates on religious basis. Religion should not be exploited at the time of election and the help of religious leaders should not be sought by any candidates.