Social Change In Modern Society

Answer : Globalization is generally recognized as the fading or complete disappearance of economic, social and cultural borders between nation-states. The contemporary analysts associate globalization with deterritorialization, according to which a growing variety of social activities takes place irrespective of the geographical location of participants via telecommunication, digital computers, audiovisual media, rocketry etc. Business people on different continents now engage in electronic commerce; academics make use of the latest video conferencing equipment to organize seminars with

participants across the world; the Internet allows people to communicate instantaneously with each other notwithstanding vast geographical distances separating them. In this initial sense of the term, globalization refers to the spread of new forms of non-territorial social activity.

Answer : Cultures provide a condition for resistance to change. The term cultural lag refers to the notion that culture takes time to catch up with technological innovations, and that social problems and conflicts are caused by this lag.

It is the tendency of material culture to evolve and change rapidly while non-material culture tends to resist change and remain fixed for a far longer period of time.

Cultural lag creates problems for a society in different ways. Technology is advancing and the social institutions are lagging and not following the changes. This creates disharmony in their mutual organization. Cultural lag is seen as a critical ethical issue because failure to develop broad social consensus on appropriate uses of modern technology may lead to breakdowns in social solidarity and give the rise to social conflict. For example, for controlling population, many effective contraceptive devices such as condoms, lUDs, diaphragms, foams, jellies and birth control pills have been developed, but these have not been adopted in some cultures because they are inconsistent with their societal or religious values and beliefs.

Answer : Social change is defined as the alteration of mechanisms within the social structure characterized by changes in cultural symbols, rules of behavior, social organizations and value systems. Various theories of social change are as follows :

(i) Evolutionary Theory: The notion of social evolution was taken from the theories of biological evolution. Spencer propounded an analogy between social and organic growth and between society and organization. The theories of social evolution are composed of one or more of the following principles - change, order, direction, progress and perfectibility.

Comte proposed a directional theory of society. He suggested that a society evolves from a theological orientation, to a metaphysical orientation to a positivistic orientation. Durkheim classified societies into simple societies united by similarity of their members, (mechanical solidarity) and complex societies based on specialization and functional interdependence of members (organic solidarity). This also suggests a directional evolutionary pattern. The criticism of this type is that it is sometimes difficult in evolutionary theory to differentiate simple direction from progress.

(ii) Cyclical Theory: The basic premise of the cyclical theories is that the cultures and civilizations pass through stages of change, starting and often ending with the same stage.

This passing through stages is called a cycle. The cycle when completed, repeats itself over and over
again. Sorokin’s theory is based on the principle of immanent socio-cultural change. Sorokin also makes a distinction between three broad types of culture-ideational, idealist and sensate-which he conceives as succeeding each other in cycles. Ideational culture is spiritualistic, mystical and indeterminate. Sensate culture is the realm of science and of direct sensory experiences.

Idealistic culture has certain characteristic of both the ideational and sensate cultures. These three types of cultures are looked upon as three views of reality that change according to the two principles mentioned above. Sorokin’s work is especially noteworthy not only because it contains a mass of historical analogies and comments on particular social transformations, but also because it saw societies as ‘changing’ rather than necessarily progressing or decaying.

Answer : Social change is long term change in the social, cultural, political and ideological components of the society. Because of globalization, urbanization and industrialization there is free flow of ideas and goods happening across the cultures. In this way the old traditional ideas are giving way to new ideas. Thus, there exists a situation of flux where new problems are coming into the picture.Therefore, the social change is the result of problems created, solution aspired and a conservative reaction to the change.

Consider India first, the traditional social order was characterized by caste and gender inequalities backed up by religion. But, with the advent of British, new ideas of equality and freedom arrived. Finally, we gave to ourselves a forward looking and modern constitution which is a major driver of social change. Today, inequalities based on caste are giving way to inequalities based on class. Untouchability has become a thing of past atleast in urban areas. Women are getting empowered and are asserting themselves and challenging the traditional patriarchal authority. Family system is changing from joint to nuclear. Nationalism is challenging the regional identity of people leading to protests for separate states. Unplanned and rapid urbanization is leading to more criminal activities in the cities. We had witnessed various movements such as backward class movement, dalit movement, environmental movement and ethnic movements.

Because of secularization and assertion of religious bodies is leading to communalism in the society. Naxalism is the direct result of poor governance and mismanaged globalization in the country. Various environmental conflicts and pressure groups are challenging the western model of development. Therefore, a rapid social change is happening in Indian society.

In USA, there are social inequalities based on race. Race is overlapping with poverty leading toinequality. Capitalism combined with economic recession is affecting the lives of people. In Britain, we witnessed the riots by underclass where they looted the grocery shops for food. There are even food riots in few countries including Somalia where people are dying of hunger.

South Africa is going through a big social change. Now, blacks are asserting themselves in every sphere. Today, violence is rampant in South Africa as blacks have still not got their proper rights. Recently, black miners were shot down by police as they were demanding more wages. In Pakistan, a rapid and uneven change is happening.

Thus, social change is happening in every society. To make it more peaceful and enduring, this change must happen in a slow and acceptable manner.

Answer : Though the modern science is relatively recent origin having started with Galileo about 350 years ago but it has made rapid progress and have completely transformed outwardly the manner of our living.

Human society has changed rapidly more in the thousands of year ago. The impact of science is very visible on every aspect of society such as agriculture, medicine, health care, telecommunications, transportations, computerisation and so on is part of our daily living.

Technological advances such as automobiles, airplanes, radio, television, cellular phones, computers have brought major advances and changes to the world. Indeed the 21st century technology has completely or irreversibly changed the way people meet, interact, learn, work, do business.

The technological information is also increasing exponentially and entire data base of scientific knowledge doubling every several years. This technological explosion is due to advances in communication technology. Consequently, sociologists are concerned with how technological societies will be forced to adapt to social changes that improvement in technology will continue to bring. In the 1990s, people witnessed on explosion of computer technology which has in turn led to a change in how and where people work. The internet the largest computer network has revolutionised electronic networking and the number of people using internet doubling annually.

W.F. Ogburn has also analysed the impact of science on society. He developed the concept of cultural lag to understand the influence of science on society. According to him, science and technology is so rapidly advancing but societal change is not keeping pace with that change consequently cultural lag situation is occurring in society.

The internet has certainly provided new possibilities for society but also influencing cultural values of society. Global culture is now dominating over local culture. The value system of society is also changing. Critics have also argued that with advent of science and technology, crimes are increasing, cultural moral values are declining, consumerism is rising.

Answer : Social development mechanism has been designed to help people who are in need of help-such as elderly, rural poor, destitute women and children, physically disabled, mentally disturbed. Social support mechanism has been developed to take care of needs of these people. This has been resulted in many benefits for poor, women, physically and mentally disabled peoples. Several social support mechanisms working in the country are health delivery system through ASHA in rural area, rural employment through MGNREGA, etc. other private social support mechanisms are like community groups, NGOs, churches, etc.

Accredited Social Health Activist (ASHA) selected from every village in the country who are trained to provide health facilities in rural areas are performing well all over the country.

This social framework is also a key component of the National Rural Health Mission.

Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Programme also providing rural employment and have been successful to some extent in reducing poverty all over the country. Various NGOs and other institutions working in the field of education, disabilities related people also have been very helpful. The National policy on older persons introduced by the government mandate state support to elderly with regard to health care, shelter and welfare and social security has been made the concurrent responsibility of the central and the state governments.

The policy also recognises that older persons could render useful services in the family and in the society. Regarding health care for the elderly, the goal of the policy is to provide good affordable health services. In this process it envisages to have the cooperative efforts of the public health services and of the private health services and in this regard development of health insurance has been given high priority. Mobile health services, special camps, ambulance facilities are also being provided. All these social support mechanism have been very crucial in implementing the government’s social development programmes in the field of education, health, rural employment, etc. Thus, there is need to strengthen them through proper management and financial support to make them efficient mechanism of development in the country.

Answer : A social movement is a sustained collective effort that focuses on some aspect of social change. According to M.S.A. Rao, a social movement essentially involves sustained collective mobilisation through either informal or formal organisation and is generally oriented towards bringing about change in the existing system of relationships.

There are mainly three prerequisites for a social movement:

1. Collective organisation: The basic functional requirements of a social movement are an ability to mobilise human and material resources, to exert external influence and mount resistance to counter pressures. Social movements are organised collective endeavours. Thus, the first important prerequisite is its collective nature.
2. Organisational structure and leadership: Organisational structure and leadership is another important aspect of a social movement. Distribution of task is required in every movement. These tasks are assigned to different persons and units of the group depending upon personal qualities and commitment of individuals. In this respect, some kind of organisational structure emerges to fulfil the goals of a movement. When a persuasive leader leads a movement, support of masses tends to be spontaneous. Mahatma Gandhi’s role in India’s freedom movement is a well known example in this respect. Decentralised democratic leadership is another important aspect. An elaborate organisational structure of local and regional units are very important to strengthen the movement. These units are required to be formed for mobilising the people communicating messages and implementing action plans.
3. Ideological frame work: A movement cannot keep itself alive unless it develops its ideological frame and identity. An ideology of a social movement explain and Justify its purpose and methods. Moreover, ideology also gives legitmacy to the action programmes of a movement. The ideological underpinnings provide the movement acceptablity and recognition among the people at large.

Finally change orientation is another significant aspect of social movement as every social movement is directed towards some change according to its aims and objectives.

Answer : The literal meaning of collective action is doing anything as a group such as implementing agreements. Collective action also involves public choices in setting of standards of social integration and provision of public goods through the collaboration of individuals. This also describes the situation in which multiple individuals would be benefitted from certain action. Public goods are often provided by governments in societies.

One of the abiding puzzles in the development economics is the remarkable failure of third world governments and their large size population. There is widespread agreement that collective participation is worthwhile. Micro studies estimate that the social and private returns to public intervention in health and primary education typically conclude that the net benefits are substantial. In a study it has found that top ten major problems facing the country are related to physical and social infrastructure. Many developing countries like India have had many years of relatively stable populist government but quality of infrastructure yet have not been developed. Even public health and primary education is well developed in Srilanka.

This evidence of widespread failure is questioning the presumption that pupular control or democracy is enough to make the state do what its people want and a corresponding shift to the view that we need to better understand the determinants of successful collective action at the local level. Specially a lot of attention has been paid to the question whether the social structure of communities, defined in terms of the size and the number of different social groups, has any influence on the provision of publicly provided goods.

But there are several disintegrative problems related to collective action. First tastes might differ across social groups and as a result, a heterogenous community may find it harder to articulate a common demand for a shared good. These could be reflected in lower local contributions for these goods or political activity which favours relatives to the cooperation.

Second, even if everyone wants the same public goods, people may have conflicting views of how the private benefits associated with generation of the public good should be shared and who should be incharge of procurement, whose brother should get the construction contract, etc.

It may be also possible that community enforcement machanisms are weaker in more heterogeneous communities and the agency aspects of collective action would become more problematic. This will cause disintegration of social mechanism.

Answer : This notion arose around 1970 as a reaction to modernisation theory which held that all societies progress through similar stages of development, that today’s underdeveloped areas are thus in a similar situation to that today’s developed areas at sometime in the past.

Therefore the task in helping the under developed areas out of poverty is to accelerate them along this supposed common path of development by various means such as investment, technology transfers and closer integration to the world market.

Proponent of dependency theory argued that under developed countries are not merely primitive versions of developed countries but have unique features and structures of their own. But the critics of this concept argued in opposition to free market economists and argued that under developed countries needed to reduce their connectedness with the world market so that they can pursue a path more in keeping with their own needs less dictated by external pressures i.e. developed countries.

Dependency theory is a body of social science theories also predicted to the notion that resources flow from a periphery of poor and under developed states to a core of wealthy states and enriching the wealthy states at the expense of the poor state and poor states are also becoming dependent on rich states or developed states for their development requirements.Hence the dependency of poor countries on developed or rich countries increasing in terms of investment, technology, etc.

Answer : Development induced displacement is forcing communities and individuals out of their homes, often also their homelands, for the purpose of economic development. It is a subset of forced migration.

Though historically associated with construction of Dams, Hydro Electric projects or for irrigation purposes, it now seems to be triggered by many other activities like mining, creation of military installation, airports, industrial plants, weapon testing grounds, railways, conservation projects, etc. Today, it is a major social problem, affecting multiple levels of human organizations, from tribal and village communities to well developed urban areas.

Answer : Introduction of market economy into hitherto traditional societies based only on subsistence to agriculture and simple division of labour completely changed the face of these societies. The production that was earlier meant basically for village consumption with little or no surplus became a market driven process with emphasis on cash crops and surplus production. It is not that traditional societies did not have market presence. They had markets with market values andprinciples.

Thus the relationships that were earlier characterized by traditional, personal exchanges based on barter changed into contractual, impersonal and pecuniary ones based on cash. Market driven production also led to complex form of division of labour based on specialization to increase productivity. Also old hierarchies driven by tradition and customs gave way to new hierarchies based on class and economic factors.

Answer : Education is an important mechanism engaged in transmission of societal culture from one generation to other and also cherishing new values demanded by the social situation and thereby contributing for social equilibrium and social change. Education means acquiring gradual knowledge about societal norms, values and culture either informally through family or formally through schooling system or both.

Education teaches man the use of the various capacities, abilities, intelligence, etc., bestowed upon him by Nature. Education gives him ability to succeed in his struggle for existence. Education is an art of adaptation. For man, adaptation is more social than natural. Hence, education adapts man to society. In this way, education is an important means of social control.

The organisation or system of society is disrupted and thrown into confusion when the educational systems contradict or when the activity of education does not function correctly, and social control fails to function.

Hence education is a necessary condition for the proper exercise of social control. In the absence of an appropriate and organised education, social control remains merely an arbitrary pressure which cannot continue for long. Without proper education the harmony of the individual and society is not merely difficult but well high impossible.

Answer : Religion is intrinsically found in both primitive and modern society. Religion is mainly responsible for maintain equilibrium in the society through socialization and also responsible for social change in the form of social mobility in both closed and open societies.

Religion is a means for satisfying man’s emotional needs and also a response to man’s intellectual needs. Durkheim defined religion as “a unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things, that is to say things set apart and forbidden”. Religion ensures social stability because its primary role is knowledge giving, in the sense, knowledge about birth and death, and life after death. By death, one can meet God and death is the invitation by God. Like this, religion sanctifies death and gives consolation to man and subdue his tension and anxiety. The secondary role of religion is integration. Religion says that ancestors are to be kept happy through rituals and worship or else ancestors disturb the life in the form of Ghosts. So rituals and worship of ancestors are performed by inviting community peoples. Sociologically, religion thus integrates people through rituals and social solidarity is strengthened. Religion provides socio- religious identity to man. Even in the 21st century advance societies like America and other countries get data collection by prescribing the religion column in an application.

Religion determines the rules of social relationship, for example, sexual intercourse is a sin but the same relationship sanctified by religion in the form of marriage becomes legitimate.

Durkheim says that every society transforms from traditional to modern and in the process Anomie is found. During Anomie, people are not strongly integrated. Then religion through its moral education promotes integration in the society. Durkheim also says that religious beliefs prevent man from committing suicide. In his studies, he discovered that Catholics are less prone to suicide than Protestants because Catholics are more religious and they attend prayers regularly and they consider committing suicide as a sin.

According to Durkheim social life is impossible without the shared values and the moral beliefs which form the collective conscience. In their absence, there would be no social order, social control, social solidarity and cooperation. In other words, there would be no society. Religion reinforces the collective conscience. The religious worship strengthens the value and moral belief which form the basis of social life. By defining them as sacred, religion provides them with power to direct human action. Religion being a symbolic representation of the society, by worshiping religion, people indirectly worship society and recognised their dependence on it. Thus, religion is functional for the society. It provides social solidarity and acts as an instrument of social control.

Like Durkheim, Malinowski uses data from small scale non literate societies to develop his thesis on religion. Malinowski identifies the specific areas of social life with which religion is concerned and to which it is addressed. There are situation of emotional stress which threaten social solidarity.

Anxiety and tension tend to disrupt social life. Situations which produce these emotions include crisis of life such as birth, puberty, marriage and death. Malinowski notes that in all societies these life crises are surrounded by religious rituals. Religion helps in dealing with such situation as life crisis and thus strengthens social solidarity. For example death is the most disruptive of all crisis situations. Religion deals with the problems of death in the following manner. A funeral ceremony expresses the belief in immortality which denotes the facts of death and so comforts the bereaved. Other mourners support the bereaved by their presence at the ceremony. Thus, comfort and support checks the emotions which death produces and controls the stress and anxiety which might disrupt society. Thus religion is functional for the society.

Talcott Parsons, trying to synthesize the views of Durkheim and Malinowski, says that religion is functional for both society as well as the individual. Religion provides general guidelines for conduct which are expressed in a variety of norms. By establishing general principle and moral belief, religion helps to strengthen the value consensus which Parsons believe is necessary for order and stability in society.

Further, Parsons argues that another major function of religion is to make sense of all experiences, no matter how meaningless and contradictory they appear. An example is the question of suffering. Why must man endure disruption and pain so unequally and haphazardly?

If needed at all, religion provides a range of answers. The suffering is imposed by God to test the person faith. It is a punishment for sins. Suffering with fortitude will bring its rewards in Heaven. Suffering, thus, become meaningful.

Next, according to Parsons, another function of religion is that it provides a means of adjusting and coming to terms of situation characterised by uncertainty. For example man is unable to predict or control the effect of weather upon agriculture. In such a situation religious rituals act as a ‘tonic to self confidence’. In this way, religion maintains social stability by allaying the tension and frustration which could disrupt social order.

Religion is also responsible for social change. Karl Marx said that religion is opium and responsible for the oppression of the proletariat class by giving false solace. So he advocated for overthrow of religion and for the rise of communism. Likewise, many communist countries officially prescribe for religion.

After Renaissance, abusive powers of religious clergies were mainly responsible for social mobility in European Society. According to Max Weber, the Spirit of Protestants is responsible for the rise of Capitalism and disappearance of feudalism. This altered the social relationship and social structures of the society, so religious values are responsible for social change.

In transitory societies like India, due to rigid caste system and dominance of Brahmanism’, new religions like Jainism and Buddhism and Sikhism emerged. And social mobility in from of ‘Sanskritisation’ is mainly driven by religious values. Due to religious values, mass conversion of Dalits to other religion is taking place making the rate of social change fast.

In contemporary India using religion, political parties are making backdoor entry into the politics and there by dividing the society on the basis of religion.

The Shariat law has a provision of polygamy and the abuse of this provision has resulted in exploitation and low status of Muslim women. Now there is feminist movement against this abuse of polygamy and demanding equal status of women. Religion is being used as a tool by religious fundamentalists and terrorists in both open and close societies and destabilizing the social equilibrium of the society. Religion sanctifies marriage between opposite sex, but there is demand for legitimizing gay marriages. So western countries have legitimized it. Therefore, religion is a foundation for both social stability and social change.

Answer : The concept of hierarchy is foundation to the study of social structure and social life as well. Therefore, contribution to the study of hierarchy largely comes from the writings of the scholars taking interest in the field of social continuity and social change.

Hierarchy refers to the ranking of people in a given society in which their positions are not subjected to change. In hierarchical societies the distinction between the ranks is defined by theological consideration and moral values or physiological changes which are not subjected to amendment. And people conform to their positions as given to them without any resentment or rebellion and social mobility is considered as immoral and finally, collectivism and corporate identity is highly profound here and individualism is yet to make appearance.

Natural inequalities are biologically based and consist in a difference of age, health, bodily strength and the qualities of mind or the soul. Such beliefs are often found in systems of racial stratification, for example, the Whites claim biological superiority over Blacks and see this as the basis for their dominance. By comparison, social inequality consists of the different privileges which some even enjoy to the prejudice of others. Such as that of being more rich, more honoured, more powerful, or even in a position to exact obedience.

No matter small or large, biological inequalities provide the foundation upon which structures of social inequality are built. However, in some cases like the caste system of India, an individual’s status is fixed by birth, in fact, prior to birth.

Pre-Renaissance scholars like Plato, Aristotle and others justified hierarchical society. Plato advocated three categories of Men – Man of Gold, Man of Silver and Man of Iron and said only the Men of Gold character can rule.

In the same tone, Aristotle said that distinction between men and women and master and slave as legitimate. He also said that women should not be given important role in administration as they are emotionally weak and hence could not apply rational mind. Thus, hierarchy was justified on the basis of natural inequalities.

However, during and after Renaissance, scholars like Rousseau, Saint Simon and others said that inequality is created by man for the gratification of his own self-interest. The rational and scientific education, technological revolution, search for independence and individualism contributed for the break down of hierarchical social order and emergence of flexible, dynamic and open society where new people can move from lower level to higher level of social ladder.

However, even today in the so-called open societies some degree of hierarchy is found in the social structure. For example, the Blacks of America are unable to afford for quality education and thereby getting only a mediocre job and even after centuries of democratic rule, America till date have not made women as the Head of the state. And more importantly in countries like India, no amount of wealth education can acquire Brahmin status to other backward class particularly for Dalits.

As man is dynamic so is society. Due to communication revolution and globalization hierarchical structures are getting diluted and all societies are more open now than before though in a different form and degree.

The traditional Hindu Society in India was divided into five main strata; four Varna and castes, and a fifth group, the outcaste whose members were known as untouchable. Each caste is sub divided into jati or sub-castes which in total number many thousands. Jatis are occupational group. There are carpenter jatis, potter jatis and so on. Castes are ranked in terms of ritual purity. The Brahmin occupies the highest position in the society while the untouchables or Shudra are at the lowest in the hierarchy. As examined by caste, social stratification involves a hierarchy of social groups. Members of a particular stratum have a common identity, like interests and similar life-style.

They enjoy and suffer the unequal distribution of rewards in society as members of different social groups. Social stratification, however, is only one form of social inequality. It is possible for social inequality to exist without social strata.

For example, some sociologists have argued that it is no longer correct to regard western industrial society, particularly the USA, as being stratified in terms of class system. They suggest that social class have been replaced by a continuous hierarchy of unequal positions. Where there were, once classes, whose members had a consciousness of kind, a common way of life and a shared interest, there is now an unbroken continuum of occupational statuses which command varying degree of prestige and economic rewards. Thus, it is suggested that a hierarchy of social group has been replaced by hierarchy of individuals. Although, many sociologists used the term social inequality and social stratification interchangeably, the importance of seeing social stratification as a specific form of social inequality will become apparent as follows:

There are so many stratification systems which are accompanied by the belief which states that social inequality is biologically based. Jean Jacques Rousseau has referred to biological based inequality as natural and physical because it is established by nature and consists in a difference of age, health, bodily strength and qualities of the mind or the soul.

By comparison, socially created inequality consists of different privileges which some men enjoy to the prejudice of others. Such as that of being more rich, more honoured, more powerful or even in a position to exact obedience. Rousseau believed that biologically based inequalities between men were small and relatively unimportant where as socially created inequalities provide the major basis for systems of social stratification. Most sociologists would support the view.

However, it could be argued that biological inequalities, no matter how small, provide the foundation upon which structure of social inequalities are built. Andre Beteille has argued that. Natural inequalities are based on difference in quality and qualities are not just there: they are as human beings have defined them in different cultures. Thus, it can be said that biological differences become biological inequalities to the extent that they are defined as such. They form a component of some social stratification system simply because members of those systems select certain characteristics and evaluate them in a particular way.

Answer : According to Ruskin, “Education consists in making people polite what they out to be”. The ideals and patterns of politeness differ from society to society. An individual is trained in these through education. Here the word ‘education’ does not contain merely literacy but is employed in its most comprehensive sense. It is only in this meaning of the world that the sociologist studies or contemplates it. Education teaches man the use of the various capacities, abilities, intelligence, etc., bestowed upon him by Nature. Education gives him ability to succeed in his struggle for existence. Education is an art of adaptation. For man, adaptation is more social than natural. Hence, education adapts man to society. In this way, education is an important means of social control.

Education is in the family, school, playground, club, office, in fact everywhere. At every place the individual is taught something and socialized. In the family, in school, in playground, the child learns the use of polite behaviour learns to respect the opinion and advice of others and learns to comply with the traditions and mores. Theoretical education, viz., reading and writing, serves to form the intellectual base for all this and with practical education he learns to put this into practice.

The organisation or system of society is disrupted and thrown into confusion when the educational systems contradict or when the activity of education does not function correctly, and social control fails to function. Hence education is a necessary condition for the proper exercise of social control. In the absence of an appropriate and organised education, social control remains merely an arbitrary pressure which cannot continue for long.

Without proper education the harmony of the individual and society is not merely difficult but well high impossible. Education makes social control normal. It makes social control feasible through self-control and the individual does not experience its burden. It is another thing that an educated person cannot easily be persuaded to acquire to a wrong or incorrect form of social control.

Whatever is acquired in human life is the result of formal or informal education. When the child is born, he has no knowledge of his surroundings. Gradually, he comes to recognize his environment by using his sense organs and by coming in contact with other people. For this reason, are finds arrangements for education everywhere? Not only in civilized societies, but even in primitive societies the adults try to educate adolescents in the ways of adult’s life. Among the tribals of India, this social education of the young girls and boys takes place at the dormitories.

To put it briefly, the individual’s character, personality, culture, thinking, common sense, skills, habits and even the other less significant things of life depend upon education. The importance of education in human life is thus evident.

Answer : In the sociology of social development different variables have been picked up such as development by whom, development for whom and development for what cost. After Second World War, almost in every nation the notion of social development emerged and it is the most analytical hub unit and almost right from classical thinkers in economics to sociologists all picked up the notion of development in their writings.

At the same time, the issue of development has also been addressed in almost every subject and concerns pertaining to economic, political and social reconstructions, found its base in the writings of different scholars belonging to different disciplines.

Broadly speaking, development is a gradual unfolding or working out of details of anything. According to L.T. Hob House, there are four criteria to understand development such as increase in scale, efficiency, mutuality and freedom. Previously two terms have been linked with development which are growth of human control over natural resources and growth of knowledge but in recent times the term development has also been used to designate the differences between two broader types of society i.e. agrarian and industrial. But with the emergence of modernisation, the notion of development took a different seat.

However, S.C. Dubey in Indian scenario emphasised that in the notion of social development we must take into account certain varibles like quality of life, different level of subsistence, standards of living which are culturally conditioned, fulfillment of local needs, level of aspirations, motivations and degree of happiness and contentment.

However, Abhijeet Pathak opines that social developmnet is political, economic and cultural and only through structural change the gap between poor and rich can be bridged and we will be able to address regional imbalances.

Thus, there is a need of strategic long term policy and hence in the sociology of development the notion of planned development and social policy picked up. Brodly speaking, social policy embraces everything what an authority or state wants to achieve. According to Wilhelm Kilheau, social policy is a planning directed towards a specific direction to achieve the target. It has been argued that major policies with holistic development began with Russian Revolution and later on this was followed by many countries and followed by the newly independent states.

Similarly in the third world countries after independence, the question of nation building was the utmost priority and almost every country planned the blue print to evolve their nation and most of the countries even changed their political ideologies for planned social development. In Indian context after independence the goal of achieving socialist pattern was set and five years planning was initiated to achieve the goal but within the periphery of social planning economic as well as non-economic factors have been kept in view. Trilok Singh in his anlaysis of social planning includes all these measures initiated by government and within it includes extension of social service, quantitative reforms, welfare policies, introduction of supplementary welfare services, social security reforms and changes aimed to reduce disparity of income and to provide equality of opportunity. Though in India the need and necessity of social policy is paramount. In our society poverty and illiteracy are widespread. Problems of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes are not only serious but require immediate solution. Our planners have fully realised that unless social problems are solved economic and political problems cannot be effectively tackled.

Thus, it is with this view that all round efforts are being made to undertake social welfare activities on a large. Such as:

1. Prohibition on Drinking: Drinking is considered an evil in country like India where people have very low and poor living standard. It was with this view our policy makers suggested that it was the duty of state to enforce prohibition throughout the country at appropriate time.
2. Women Empowerment: Women are weaker section of society and do not enjoy rightful place in male dominated society. In order to give them rightful place stress is being laid on the spread of literacy among them. This has made them shareholders in ancestral property and given right to divorce and seats have been reserved for them in urban and rural local bodies and now they are demanding such reservation in legislative assemblies and parliament.
3. Social Defence Programme: Under this scheme care and protection of neglected and deliquent children etc. is being provided.
4. Education: In the field of social policy stress has been laid on spread of education. Illiteracy among the Indians was a well-known phenomenon during British regime. Thus, all round efforts are being made to develop elementary, secondary, technical and vocational and higher education.
5. Welfare of Scheduled Castes and Backward Classes: Scheduled castes and scheduled tribes continue to be socially, economically and politically backward. In their own interest as well as in the interest of society as a whole it is imperative that their welfare should be looked after in a planned way. Thus major steps taken in this direction are abolition of untouchability, reservation of jobs for them in all categories and seat have been reserved for them in all elected bodies and scholarship on liberal basis are also given.
6. Poverty and Unemployment: These causes many serious social dislocations. In order to eradicate these there is a separate ministry at the centre and employment exchanges have been set up which help in providing employment. Many poverty alleviation programmes have been initiated by the government.
7. Central Welfare Board: This was set up in order to survey needs and requirements of social welfare organizations, evaluate their programmes and projects, coordinate the assistance given by various central ministries and state departments.
8. Community Development and Social Progress: It was due to this village upliftment became somewhat easy and quick. Through it villagers realised the necessity of ending their superstitions and improve their social conditions. Through this programme, efforts have been make to end poverty and reduce unemployment and villages began to see social advancement in the days to come.

However, policies and programmes initiated by state for social development by and large have not been able to make much headway in many states. The reason for this are lack of proper strategy, administrative apathy, widespread corruption, large size of population, inability of socially and economically weak section to exert pressure on political and administrative machinery, lack of political will to implement most important policies, such as land reforms and family planning and incapacity amongst poor to organise and fight for themselves.

Thus as a result of these, a large number of population are still living below poverty line, inspite of considerable development achieved in agriculture, industry as well as service sector. The benefits of development have been appropriated by socially and economically powerful upper middle and middle classes and upper castes.

The maldistribution of assets have left about one third of the population without effective means of satisfying their basic needs and a major section of these economically poor are scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.

Thus, we failed to some extent in reducing poverty and banishing unemployment and reducing concentration of wealth or economic power.

Answer : Science is essentially concerned with human understanding of the real world such as inherent properties of space, matter, energy and their interaction. Science and technology have always been part of the development process that is inherent to civilization. One of the activities through which the culture broadly expresses itself is the intellectual and scientific advancement. In modern time science and technology have become indispensible.

Science generates information, change in attitudes and has values and is a major instrument of social and economic change. Promotion of science also leads to breaking down of irrational and superstitious beliefs and ideas. Apart from large scale application in industry, scientific principles have been profitably applied in the field of agriculture to increase fields and improve crops.

Health is directly and indirectly influenced by the discoveries of science and technology. Communication plays an important role in disseminating information and knitting diverse peoples together.

The role of science and technology is of special importance for developing countries, in the economic and social domains. Intelligent use of science and technology can increase production and productivity, reduce drudgery and generate employment. It can also be instrumental in reducing and eradicating diseases and ensuring a healthy population. Thus, science and technology have gone a long way in ensuring optimum use of resources. At the same time, science and technology are among the basic factors that demolish the wall between poverty and prosperity.

Thus, any use of science and technology should be for welfare of human being, and eradicating poverty and for bringing peace and prosperity and fraternity among human beings. This can be done if human beings cultivate science and technology for reducing irrationality, promoting secularism and upright humanistic approach. Today’s society has made progress in material life but lags behind in moral progress based on scientific attitude. Scientific attitude may provide a panacea to all problems related withthe caste, communal, social and even international conflicts by inculcating reasons in its guiding spirit and questioning existing practices, and its basic existence.

Guided by reasons one will be able to observe social evils in their true perspective. One can also examine, for instance the practice of untouchability, Sati or contempt for widows in the light of socio-economic history and realise that their roots are to be found in human greed rather than divine inspiration. If this rational and questioning spirit basic to the scientific attitude is succeeded to spread and gain roots in minds of human beings at large, we could easily find a panacea to earthly ills and conflicts and encourage a cooperative spirit and collective security for human kind. On traditional side man armed with scientific spirit can take judicious decisions on what to accept and what to reject.

In recent times there are also some shortcomings i.e. the dangerous side effects of rapid technological development. It should be seriously and earnestly faced and checked. Such as environmental pollution or degradation has to be prevented with the help of science and technology whose careless application can cause irreversible damage. Interaction between the scientific community and the rest of the society must be encouraged so as to avoid misdirected research and sub-optimal use of investment made. A better management of resources should be called for so that science and technology can be used constructively and to the best effect in the development of the country.

Also the impact of scientific and technological endeavour is more in some areas than others such as industrial advancement, achievement in space applications, defence, nuclear research but these do not mitigate the misery of a large section of population who are forced to exist in insanitary conditions without safe drinking water with little and no medical facilities. Also a large number of our villages are steeped in poverty, still unliterate, lacking in schools and easy means of communication. Unless rural as well as urban people at large will not get benefits of science and technology the impact of it will be of negligible value. Efforts have been made and some results achieved but considering the vastness of areas and differences, much remains to be done.

However, the marvels of science are visible the world over and we can see the impact of science and technology in all developing countries including ours.
A large number of people are better clothed, many epidemics have been eradicated, longevity has increased.

There is better food security and then there are improvement in transport, electronics, communication, material life etc. Technology has made an increasingly dominant role in shaping the way of life in developing countries. Our modes of life and thought and all our social institutions are influenced profoundly by mechanisation.

The increasing use and constant improvement of machines have raised tremendously the productivity of labour, as a resultgreater quantities of goods are thus available. Modern science and technology have brought into existence quite a number of jobs that require specialised skill and knowledge. Thus, modern science and technology in many ways have accelerated the tempo of human life. By changing family and social organization, science and technology have forced upon the government new functions and responsibilities in the form of social security measures and welfare activities.

Another by product of science and technology and industrialisation has been a great expansion of government control over business. Machine technology has brought into being large industrial enterprises which carry on production on a large-scale. These mammoth enterprises have great economic power, if they left themselves they will likely involve in unfair competitive practices or to combine with one another in order to create unhealthy monopolies.Therefore, the role of government is more important in order to protect the public against these abuses and dangers.

Besides these, by destroying the domestic system of production, modern industrialisation has changed radically the family organization. Technology has placed man’s work except in agriculture wholly away from the home and has removed nearly all women’s economic duties, except cooking, house cleaning, sewing and laundering.

Therefore, it has been possible for women to come away form home to the factory and the office and have their independent earnings. Thus, women have a new social life in this new environment. At the same time, improvements in transportation have led to the disintegration of the neighbourhood and to the growth of towns and cities.

Technologies have also affected man’s ideas, attitudes, beliefs. Scientific discoveries and inventions have changed the attitude of men and women towards many rituals, creeds and religious practices. It is held that modern men and women are less serious, more inclined towards superficial excitements and wealth is esteemed more than cultural or intellectual attainments.

There is also undermining of local folkways and increasing dominance of urban ways of life over those of the country side.

However, technology has indirectly facilitated the growth of democratic ideas by transforming the position of labour from one status to one of the contract, by bringing them together under labour organisation.

The impact of science of technology has also produced cultural lag in developing countries. In modern societies, technological progress has produced rapid changes in the material aspects of culture but non-material aspects are failing to adjust. Thus, we find that impact of science and technology is enormous on developing society as it has solved many problems of human beings by providing them food, clothes, communication and health facilities and new rational way of thinking.

Answer : Literally education means to teach or to develop but the broader meaning of it is management of knowledge. It has always been argued that it is only through education man becomes a man which itself speaks the relevance of education. But according to Durkheim, education is the influence exercised by the adult generation upon those who are not yet ready for adult life. Its objective is to awaken and develop in the child those physical, intellectual and moral conditions which are required of him both by his society as a whole and by his immediate social environment. Thus the process of education takes place in every society.

However, its form differs from society to society. Society achieves two goals mainly through education. First one is to socialise and develop the individual according to the social needs such as social control and the second is to fulfill society’s needs concerning human resources such as training for the specialized skills in the modern economy. Education plays a vital role in handing down tradition, culture, skill and knowledge from one generation to another.

Historically education has passed through different phases such as ancient, medieval and modern and had both formal and informalsystems of education. The informal has an important function of communicating the traditions and skills to the tribes and the family. In ancient times this function was discharged by the family members and the knowledgeable and experienced people of the community. But the formal education was then influenced by religion. Institutions of formal education were patronised by religious institutions i.e. temple and mosques and kings. Apart from teaching language, grammar and mathematics, this system also laid stress on the teaching of religion, medical science etc. In modern industrial society special stress is being laid on formal education and the tradition of informal education has disappeared.

However, according to Durkheim, the major function of education is the transmission of society’s norms and values. According to him, society can survive only if there exists among its members a sufficient degree of homogeneity and education perpetuates and reinforces this homogeneity by fixing in the child from the beginning the essential similarities which collective life demands.

Durkheim holds the view that education provides the necessary link between individuals and society by indoctrinating them with the values and ideals, tradition and thoughts of the community. Durkheim also argues that the formal education imparted by schools, which cannot be provided either by family or the peer groups because family is a group of kin tied together by blood. In family, relationships are also coloured by love, affection and emotions and then under such conditions one cannot look beyonds one’s family and get acquainted with the promise and problems of living in the large society.

Similarly, peers are one’s personal choice then membership of peer group cannot prepare one for the larger society but school system is miniature of society in which people interacts with other members of the school community in terms of a fixed set of rules. Thus by respecting school rules child learns to respect rules in general that develops the habit of self-control in him. According to Talcot Parsons, a family or a peer group upholds particularistic standards whereas school upholds universalistic standards. Thus, a school prepares young people for their adult roles.

According to Durkheim, formal educational institutions apart from transmitting general values, which provide the necessary homogeneity for social survival, also transmit specific skills, which provide necessary diversity for social cooperation. Apart from this technical skill, educational institutions also creates complex division of labour which is the main feature of industrial society.

This society is knit together by value consensus and a specialized division of labour which makes interdependence condition for survival. The main objective of education is also to awaken and develop in child those physical, intellectual and moral states which are required to him. According to T.B. Bottomore, education also prepares a child for a particular milieu in society. Thus, it also provides him membership of a particular group in social hierarchy. Education is also used as an agency for preserving class interacts and help in maintaining class distinctions.

The importance of educationalso lies in its role as an agency of social control. Through education society’s norms and values are transferred from older generations to younger generations who are not yet ready for social life. Once a child internalises through intellectual exposure, the traits of culture, his actions and behaviour patterns are moulded by his intellectual orientation. Thus, links are firmly established between society and individual. In this way, education seems a powerful and very effective agency of social control. It socialises an individual as a responsible citizen and member of the society. The government policy, programmes and information to general public etc are also transmitted through education.

However, the effectiveness of normal education as a means of social control is diminished by certain factors in modern times. For example in earlier societies, literacy was valued so much that it was the basis of prestige and power and as a result teachers enjoyed great respect and honour. Hence, it was not difficult for teachers to communicate to their pupil’s social tradition and values to regulate their conduct as recognised by the community. But with the establishment of industrial order, the scale of values has charged and now wealth, not education, is the main determinant of one’s status in modern industrial society. This has undermined the prestige of teachers to some extent.

Nowadays, the values professed by a teacher are no longer authoritative as they have to compete with the values presented to the child by his family, peer, group and media of mass communication. Thus, there is the possibility of conflict between different codes of behaviour and different agencies of social control in contemporary societies. For example, India being wedded to the ideal of secularism, Indian schools do not provide for any religious instruction. In such circumstances a boy or girl who comes from a very conservative family with religious tradition is likely to face conflicts between secular character of state with the religious values of the family.

Answer : In the sociology of development the nation of directed social change is very important. The directed type change is not only planned, but it also gives a direction to achieve a set target. It has been argued that major policies with holistic development began with Russian Revolution and later on this was adopted by many countries and also followed by newly independent states. Sociologists opined that particularly after the Second World War the need of social reconstruction was felt by almost every European country and even by USA and then to achieve the target they focussed on directed social change. Similarly in the third world countries after independence, the question of nation building was the utmost priority and almost every country planned the blue print to evolve their nation and most of them even changing their political ideology opted for development.

In broader term the notion of directed change can be approached through two different ideologies:

1. Not directing the change i.e. Laissez-faire.
2. Directing the change i.e. interventionist approach.

Further elaborating this ideology S.C. Dubey remarked that directed charge may have its movement towards three directions: (1) towards traditional; (2) towards modernisation; and (3) towards mixture of both. However as far as human factor involved in directed social change is concerned, the notion of planning and social policy is very important. Planning is an important factor of social change in contemporary society. It implies deliberate interventions in social policy. It mirrors social objectives and helps to develop the society according to its blue print. Planning conceives a social order based on rationality and balanced reasoning. In the Indian context, the goal of achieving social development, socialist pattern was set up after independence and five year planning was initated. For stimulating the process of planned change there were certain investment systems such as investment in building the social and economic infrastructure, investment in developing resources and skills, investment in attitude building, investment in research and investment in institutional building. With the concept of directed change the notion of social policy is very important. It embraces everything that an authority/state wants to achieve. The notion of social policy can be approached differently such as philosophical, as a product or as a process i.e. poverty alleviation and as a frame work i.e. socialist pattern democracy.

Answer : Education is one of the important agencies of social control. Social change and modernisation. Plato has argued that the aim of education loas to develop in the body and in the soul of the pupil all perfection and all the beauty of which they are capable.

According to Aristotle, to educate means to develop man’s faculties, especially his mind, so that he may be able to enjoy the contemplation of supreme truth, beauty and goodness.

Sumner defined education as an attempt to transmit to the child the mores of the group so that he can learn what conduct is approved and what disapproved......how to sight to behave in all kinds of cases, what he ought to believe and reject.

Durkheim has explained education as the socialization of the younger generation. It is actually a continuous effort to impose on the child ways of seeing and acting which he could not have arrived at spontaneously. Thus, education is the process of transmission of social heritage from generation to generation whereby the child learns the rules of social behaviours.

In the ancient times of preliterate society education was usually informal or orally transmitted. During the middle age education adopted institutionalized form.

Its degree of formality, contents and objectives vary with the type of civilization. The begining of the secular education started with the growth of science, commerce, industry and with the renaissance and the reformation.

One of the important social functions of education is to impart secular, democratic and scientific values among the peoples.

The secularization of belief system has led to rational and objective interpretation of religion, customs, mores and values of society. It has also accelerated the scientific development and discoveries and thus, as a result of it we have industrial revolution. On the other hand, the replacement of monarchical and feudal political structure by a democratic one is also rooted in the secular social values and intellectual revolution or enlightment.

Thus in the 18th and 19th centuries, the entire European society experienced renaissance and industrial revolution which, later on followed with industrialisation, high division of labour, weak collective conscience and social cohesion, highly individualistic life style, more interdependence etc in the society.

As far as education and reformation movements in India is concerned, the ideologies of Brhamo-Samaj, Arya Samaj, Prathana Samaj, etc. were largely based on the instinct or spirit of modern educational values. For example, the promotion of English education and DAV college were totally associated with modern ethos of education or imparting universal values. The Aligarh and Ahmadia movements among the Muslims were associated with rationalistic interpretation of the Muslim religion and society.

The backward caste movements in India, and the processes of sanskritization and westernization of the Indian society were deeply routed with the modern educational values especially western model.

The economic globalisation and modern professional and management education are rapidly transforming our agriculture-based economic order.

In comparison to pre-independence, the contribution of secondary and tertiary sectors in the net economic growth has increased. The foreign trade is now rapidly transforming the social and political milieu of the society.

The contribution of industry and service sector in the economy are playing pivotal roles. It has resulted in high social mobility in the society. Thus the emergence of post industrial society has its roof in modern educational system.

Some of the important institutional change has been brought by education especially in the institution of family marriage and kinship. The structure and functions of these institutions in the modern industrial capitalist society has been greately changed. Education is also considered as one of the important mechanism of social control.

The process of cultural modernisation in India was largely started with the educational modernization. With the spread of global educational theme, the emergence of mass or composite culture has resulted in cultural conflict; that is particularism verses universalism. As far as Indian culture and society is concerned it can be reasonably concluded that Indian society is at the crossroad. To what extent society should follow modernization and traditionalisation depends on its applicability in the society.

Answer : In the modern Indian capitalist society the development of science and technology have exerted tremendous impact on social values and social change. The society is now transforming from the industrial to post-industrial society. With the application of science and technology the agricultural and industrial production has increased manifold. The modern means of communication, like computer has promoted the modern education. Communication has brought revolutionary change in society and has resulted in the emergence of “composite culture”. The process of secularisation and democratization of society are getting more significance; as a result of it religion is rationally interpreted.

The increase in human interactions has brought all round change in the society. The economic growth and social development have its root in the science and technology in society.

According to Durkheim the organic type of social solidarity has resulted as a consequences of science and technology in society. The social cohesion in society is very low.

The highly individualistic life style isolated nuclear family and loose collective conscience are the resultant features of science and technology in India along with world. Ogburn and MacIver have argued about cultural and technological lag which have occured as a result of rapid scientific and technological development.

In Indian society also the rate of social mobility is very high and rural society is largely changing. The sanskritization and westernization in India are backed by scientific temperament.

The parochialisation of universal values are entering into the Indian social milieu. The IT professionals from India are largely migrating to abroad Thus, India is facing the problem of brain-drain. To some extent it is also strengthening our economy.

Thus, science and technology have exerted many faceted change on Indian society which is a matter of sociological investigation.

Answer : Theoretically all societies advocate equality of opportunity for education irrespective of the caste, creed, sex or class of the individual. However, the extent to which this is put into practice differs-in reality.

The new economic policy in terms of the processes of globalization, liberalization, privatisation has added to reproduction of social, economic and educational inequalities and disadvantages rather then equality of opportunity. Due to the process of privation, business enterprises world dominate the educational system. The educational institutions will be adversely affected, and the best once in the country would face out-throat competition. Thus, privatisation per se has increased disparities. Due to this fact, education in general and higher education in particular will be available to the rich in future. It will be the preserve of the super elite. With the government abandoning its commitment to education, the dalits, the tribals and the minorities will not receive quality education. Nationally and globally, divide between the rich and the poor would grow. Altbach rightly observes that privatisation in the field of education is motivated by profit.

Answer : Karl Mar’x theory of social change is called Deterministic or single factor theory about social change. According to this theory there is only one factor and not many factors responsible for bringing about social change. According to Karl Marx, economic factor is the only factor responsible for bringing about social change. In the words of MacIver and Page, Karl Marx believed that, ‘Cultural life of man, his intellectual, aesthetic spiritual life, his creeds and his philosophies and the social forms which are their Vehicles, are the reflection of economic order.’ Marx believed that except economic factor, all other factors are useless and superfluous and sometimes even harmful. He also believed the religion was the opium of the people and it distracted masses from hard realities of life. For Marx all ideas change with economic ideas and so also the living standard of the people. Not only this but for Marx, our social changes which are being witnessed in the society are nothing but due to continuous class struggle. A class struggle is always going on between the rich and the poor, between the employer and employee, between the exploiter and the exploited and between the bourgeoisie and proletariat. In his own words history of hitherto existing struggle is only class struggle. He however, feels that in this struggle between ‘haves’ and ‘have nots’ a stage is bound to come in which the workers will unite and try to improve their present miserable conditions. According to his philosophy, capitalism was losing the seeds of its own degeneration and thus bound to collapse. He also felt that when such a situation would come, there would be a great-social change. He was sure that each economic change brought with it a social change as well.

Persons theory of social change is very much related to structural functional paradigm that permits the study of changes within a system itself and of change of an entire unit, society itself. Parsons drew an analogy between the changes in biological life cycles and changes within social system, although he qualified this analogy by saying that unlike the organic or biological systems social systems are governed to a large extent by cultural factors which transcent biology. Nevertheless, the processes of growth, differentiation, the tendency towards self-maintenance that we witness operating in the processes of change neither biological systems to a large extent also operate within the social system. In addition social systems also undergo changes from within due to cultural innovations within the system, contact with other cultures and diffusion of new values and styles of living.

A primary factor related to processes of change within the social system is increase in population, its density and aggregation. It has been observed historically that major social systems, such as large communities, cities and organised forms of polity emerged in the past near river valleys and fertile lands where production of food could be harnessed in larger quantities. This increase in food production contributed to a growth of population and for other major changes within the social system, such as division of labour, emergence of urban centres, and more complex form of social organisations such as caste in India and guild in Europe. According to Parsons these changes did not come about smoothly but almost invariably through the need for reestablishing equilibrium in the system. This re-establishing of equilibrium was required due to strains in relationships between past and present patterns of relationship, values and interests. Parsons says, ”Change is never just alteration of pattern but alteration by the over coming of resistance.” By overcoming of resistance, Parsons meant the resolution of strains or conflict in the social system.

Each social system, according to Parsons, develops a vested interest or interests of different Kinds over a period of time as it integrates itself in accordance with its functional prerequisites (adaptation, goal attainment, integration and latency). But the demands of new ideas from within, need for changes in technology or the mere pressure of external factors on the system, such as changes in climate ecology or pestilence, etc. force social systems to shed pre-existing vested interests and give way to accepting new modes of thinking; to new ideas, technology, patterns of work, division of labour, and so on. These contribute to disturbances in the older mode of equilibrium and to its replacement by a new equilibrium in the social system. Between these two points of time a long drawn process of adaptation takes place in social systems by which new ideas, new ways of doing things are made acceptable to people. Parsons calls this process, the process of institutionalisation. New roles, new types of organisations, new cultural configurations such as the development of science or of religious ideas, impinge, or put strain, upon existent modes of equilibrium in the social system. The impingement of the new upon the old elements of the social organisation generates strains and conflicts with established vested interests. Parsons does not place the responsibility for causing social strain on any one factor; there is no ‘prime mover’ as such in the making of social change. The fact of social strain, however, represents a point of social development at which the older balance of interaction systems, institutions and structures of the system (roles, statuses, occupations etc.) is destabilised and the tendency towards a new equilibrium begins.

Comparative Analysis of Marxian and Parsonian views of Social Change:

I. Marxian Views of Social Change is related to Deterministic approach whereas Parsonian relates to structural functional approach.

II. Marxian views of Social Change is the product of only one factor i.e. economic factor
while Parsons mentioned several factors for social change.

III. Mark argues the notion of social change from the perspective of dialectical materialism and has applied to different historical epoches. On the other hand, Parsons argues that social changes permits the study of changes within a system itself and of change of an entire unit, society itself.

IV. Mode and means of production is the roof concept of Marx's theory of social change whereas social system and cultural innovation is important for Parsons theory of
Social Change.

V. Marxian theory of Social Change refers to view of the relationship of classes and class-struggle but on the other, increase in population, its density and aggregation are the Key factor for Parson’s theory of social change.

VI. Marxian notion of development is based on socialism or communism while Parsons tries to integrate various functional prerequisites of social system in this context.

Development implies a desirable form of social change. Development is more of an ‘operational’ concept than ‘philosophical’ one. Therefore, in this context, Marxian and Parsonian theory of Social Change from the perspective of social development in the contemporary India is much focussed on Parsonian views rather than Marxian. However, there were sociologists who studied change from the Marxian perspectives. D.P. Mukherjee and A.R. Desai were two who analysed Indian society from the Marxian perspective. D.P. Mukherjee analysed the process of social change from view of tradition and modernity. On the other, A.R. Desai discussed Social background of Indian nationalism from this perspective. But so far as contemporary Indian society is concerned, it is Parsonian view that relates the notion of technology and the process of modernization. From this perspective, social development would imply a growth in education, agriculture, industry, equitable distribution of wealth, wage and salary, a rational population policy and harmonious relationships among the minority and majority communities and so on. Broadly in India, we call them as means to achieve the principles of socialism, secularism and democracy. The notion of socialism is related to Marxian perspective.

Answer : Barber (1962) identifies three positions on the issue of social responsibility of science. One position is to take a general kind of social responsibility for the consequences inventions and discoveries. The scientists who take this stand have very zealously tried to make clear to the public, the significance of new atomic energy possibilities their comments and warnings are widely enlighten the people. Another reaction is to accept total responsibility for the social consequences of science and to try to prevent some of the most abhorred once. A third reaction is to oppose any responsibility imposed on scientists for the social consequences of their findings.

The social responsibility of the scientist today is a very complex but important issue and is to be seen along with the changing modes of the scientific endeavour itself. Science has extended into so many other areas of life, but, as other conquerors have had to experience, it has assimilated certain traits of the conquered in doing so. The scientists claim to moral superiority and to leadership in human affairs has been questioned. With inevitable clarity, we know today that things can go wrong; good men can be drawn into doing bad science. This is not a problem of the individual responsibility of the scientist. Rather it pertains to the prevailing institutional structures that produce and shape individuals. The social responsibility of science today therefore, is closely bound to its relations with the institutions of politics, educations, industry and the laboratory. It is also intimately linked to the organisation of science in the modern world.

The public basis of science also has a more immediate need apart from the openness in the diffusion of information. It is also the social responsibility of science and the organisations pertaining to science and technology to cater to important and urgent public needs which may not necessarily be as profitable as meeting commercialised requirements. In the light of the above, it is evident that the government needs to evolve an institutional set-up where scientists will have to dispense their role as citizens of the country.

Answer : Education and social development: Social development calls for a combination of several strategies which together constitute the environment required for the achievement of the objectives of the several ingredients that go to constitute social development. Social development is obviously a multi-dimensional effort. It means literacy, education, good health and all that goes to make good health possible like food and nutrition security, drinking water, easy availability of medical and health facilities preventive and attractive, and full and productive employment. It means life in security, where the society in which the individual lives, lets the individual live in a manner that suits him while at the same time not infringing on other people’s rights. Social development obviously also means living in economic security fostered by rapid national economic development accompanied by distributive justice.

Infact, education plays a very key role in the development and programme of every aspect of social development. Without getting education it is not possible but difficult to fulfill the objectives of social development. As we know, education provides every type of opportunities that gives the broader scope to individual in particular and society in general to uplift the position and status in society. Therefore, education is the most important determining factor of social development.

Answer : Technology affects society greatly in that a variation in technology causes a variation in some institution or custom. In this context, Ogburn rightly says, “Technology changes society by changing our environments to which we in turn adapt. This change is usually in the material environment and the adjustment we make with changes often modifies customs and social institutions”. Social Impact of New technologies in India may be described in the following points:

1. Modern technology has led to the disintegration of joint family system.
2. It has led to the liberation of women. Love-marriage, inter-caste marriage, late-marriage are the effects of new technologies.
3. It has led to the decline of community life.
4. It has grown the sense of individualism. Due to which it has increased the number of divorce.
5. It has created the problem of houses and slums in the cities.
6. Recreation has become commercialized.
7. It has changed the basis of social stratification from birth to wealth.
8. It has narrowed the gap of caste system.
9. It has grown psychic conflicts and diseases. The modern man suffers from great mental strain, emotional instability and economic insecurity.
10. It has led to ‘consumerism’.

Answer : The word culture comes from the Latin word ‘colere’, which means “to cultivate, to till the soil”. Culture is a valuable concept for understanding human action within the context of social organizations. Like structure, it originates through interaction and finally becomes a lasting social pattern to be followed by the people.

Sociologists define culture in different ways. In 1871, Edward B. Taylor gave a descriptive definition of culture which still remains uncontested: “culture is the complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs, and other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of the society”. Ralph Linton states that, “the culture of a society is the way of life of its members; the collection of ideas and habits which they learn, share and transmit from generation to generation. Clayed kluckhohn defines culture as ‘the total life-way of people’. Thus, culture consists of all the learned, normative behaviour patterns-that is, all shared ways or patterns of thinking and feeling as well as doing. Kluckhohn and Kelly briefly define: “culture is an historically created system of explicit and implicit designs for living, which tends to be shared by all or specially designated members of a group at a specified point of time”. For the sociologists, culture denotes acquired behaviour, which are shared by and transmitted among the members of society. Culture is a way of life of specific given people e.g. Hindu, Muslim, Christian and Sikh culture etc. and its regional variates e.g. Assami, Bengali, Bihari, Gujarati, Oriya, Punjabi, Rajasthani and Tamil etc. Hence, culture is an accumulated knowledge, which is transmitted from generation to generation with modifications and additions.

After defining culture, the significance of culture in Human Society may be outlined in the following points:

(i) Culture is basically communicated from one generation to the next. As a result of this, culture is constantly accumulating. The new generation benefits by the experiences of the older generation through the communicability of culture.

(ii) Culture fulfils ethical and social needs which are ends in themselves. Social habits and activities only tend to fulfil some needs. It is necessary to fulfil these needs for the society.

(iii) Culture possesses an order and a system. Therefore, culture maintains the social order and a specified system of the society.

In this way, culture is social, idealistic and acquired and fulfils many of man’s needs. It possesses the characteristics of communication, adaptation and integration. It is a special quality of man. It is an evidence of his social heritage.

Personality is a result of the combination of four factors, i.e. physical environment, humidity, culture, and particular experience. There can be little doubt that culture largely determines the types of personality that will predominate in the particular group. According to some thinkers, personality is the subjective aspect of culture. They regard personality and culture as two sides of the same coin. Personality is an individual aspect of culture, while culture is a collective aspect of personality. The child is born not in a vacuum but in a cultural context which affects his mental make-up, habits and attitudes. A given cultural environment sets its participant members off from other human beings operating under different cultural environments. According to Frank, ‘culture is a coercive influence dominating the individual and moulding his personality by virtue of the idea, conceptions and beliefs which had brought to bear on him through communal life”. The culture provides the raw material of which the individual makes his life. The traditions, customs, religion, institutions, moral and social standards of a group affect the personality of the group members. From the moment of birth, the child is treated in ways which shape his personality. Every culture exerts a series of general influences upon the individuals who grow up under it.

But on the other hand, as a critical aspect of the role of culture is the development of personality, we have to see how culture is playing a role in the disorganization of personality. Infact, the failure of an individual to adjust himself to society may be due to the factors inherent in the individual or in the society in which he lives. Every human being in modern culture suffers from inner conflict. Every culture embodies cultural categories and values. If the individual fails to make good within the framework of cultural categories and values, the result is personal disorganization. Moreover, there are conflicts and contradictions in every culture. Not only different persons hold different attitudes but the same individual holds contradictory and conflicting attitudes. Even within the family there may be a incompatible values and loyalties for e.g., the girl’s father may be a non-vegetarian, a smoker and strict materialist. But her mother may be a vegetarian, teetotaller and a believer in spiritualism. Her brother may be a strong opponent of women’s rights and staunch nationalist whereas her sister may be an ardent advocate of women’s rights and an internationalist. These inner contradictions arise from the myriads of possible wishes of individuals and scores of alternative ways of satisfying some of these wishes. Hence personality disorganization is bound to occur in every society.

Many psychiatrists believe that it is during the main period of socialization, i.e., during childhood and in the main socialization groups such as family, play groups and school that the basis is laid for the personality disorganization. Inconsistent discipline by people who themselves are disintegrated tends to produce cases of personal disorganization. The child may fail to form habits or acquire attitudes which may protect him from going to pieces in face of problems which another person might easily solve.

Answer : The “Ethos of Science” generally refers to the basic ideas, ideologies objectives, and social application of science. In other words, the various inventions, discoveries, technological and communication development are based on the constructing or reconstructing ideas of the society. The ethos also consists of the ultimate ends and means of scientific discoveries and the realisation of some vested social interest. It has often been difficult to say exactly to say whether science is proving boon or bane for the society. While on the one hand, in the modern society, technology determies our existence, on the other hand, the entire existence of mankind is on the threat. Any misuse of nuclear technology may destory the entire world. The losses in various World War and Hiroshima incident are still present in the long term memory of the men. Therefore, it is the moral obligation of the decision maker, policy formulators, elites and the so called intellectuals of the society to make a society-friendly objectives of the science. Its due application should be ensured in the field of agriculture and environment. Finally, it is also the reponsibility of the scientists and society to make such a congenial environment in which the situation of “Cultural lag” may not occur.

Answer : Socialisation and personality development are very closely associated processes. It is the socialization process which builds the human personality and national character. According to Kimbal Young “socialization will mean the process of inducting the individual into the social and cultural world, of making him a particular member of society and its various groups and inducting him to accept the norms and values of that society. “Socialisation is definitely a process of learning and not of biological inheritance. Bogardus defines socialisation as the “process of working together of developing group responsibility of being guided by the welfare needs of others.” It is a life long process which is operating through family, neighbour, peer group, school etc. On the other hand Allport says, “personality is the dynamic organisation within the individual of those psycho physical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment.

As far as the role of socialisation in the development of personality or self is concerned, it may be properly understood with the help of some theories:

Firstly, Cooley propounded the theory of “Looking Glass-self”. According to this theory man develops the concept of self with the help of others. He forms the concept of himself on the basis of opinions held by others about him. There are three principal elements of looking glass-self concept: (i) Our perception of how we look to others; (ii) Our perception of their judegement of how we look and (iii) Our feeling about these judgement. Thus, we discover ourselves through the reactions of others about us.

Secondly, George Herbert Mead has presented his “I” and “Me” theory of socilization and personality development. According to him the self develops out of the child’s communicative contact with others As the child develops, he differentiates ‘generalised others’ from the ‘significant others’. The child puts himself in the role of the others and then responds to his own world and acts in terms of the meaning they would to the other person. In this way, the self develops and grows. An essential characteristic of the self is its reflexive character. By this, Mead means that the self can be both subject and object to itself. Thus, by adopting towards himself the attitude that others take towards him, he comes to treat himself as an object as well as subject. Mead has also made distinction between “I” and “Me”. He says “I” is the individual self and “Me” is the social self. During the process of socialisation ‘Me’ develops.

Thirdly, Freud has explained the process of socialisation in terms of his concept of “Id”;
“ Ego” and “Super Ego” which constitute the three systems of mind. The ‘id’ is the organ of untamed passion and represents instinctive desires. The ego acts with reason while the super-ego acts with ideals and norms. There is always conflict between the “Id” and “Super Ego” and the conflicting situation is resolved by the ego, which gives balanced decision. Freud has argued that during the process of socialization neither “Id” nor “Super Ego” but the development of “Ego” is being ensured. He has compared “id” with the horse and ego with the rider guiding the horse. But like the rider, the ego sometimes is unable to guide the horse as it wishes, and must guide the Id in the direction of it or in a slightly different direction.

Thus, it may be concluded that the entire development of personatlity is rooted in the society and interaction processes. Both the formal such as schools, colleges, institutions, state, organisations, associations etc. and informal machanisms such as value, culture, family, neighbour, peer group etc. are playing crucial roles in the development of personality or self. The due socialisation ultimately results in the unique adjustment of the individual in the society. Parents and teachers are considered to play key role in the socialisation of the children. We have the evidences of “Anna” and “Kosper Houser” who is spite of being men behaved like animal because of lack of socialisation.

Answer : This scale is chiefly used to find out the prejudice behaviours, social differentiation and discrimination which are found among the people of different classes. Social distance scale measures the attitudes of like or dislike towards other groups on the part of an individual. The Social Distance Scale is of two types. (a) Social Distance scale of Bogardus and (b) Sociometry. In the Social Distance scale of Bogardus, some such situations are chosen which may manifest the intensity of Social Distance. On the basis of intensity of the situation, it is arranged in a proper order and again the scale is presented before the subject group to whom social distance is being measured. The response of an individual or group is written down whether it may be in favour of the situation or in disfavour of it. Whenever all the responses are being noted down, the statistical analysis of it is completed and then assumption is made about social distance.

Bogardus has categoried seven situations and arranged them in such a fashion which may show the ascending social distance. Bogardus, chiefly aimed to measure the attitude of likeness and dislikeness towards other groups. Bogardus scale is as follows:

The above schedule was presented before the subjects and the subjects were given instructions: (i) To give their response in any situtation (ii) The response should be for all classes, but keep themselves detach from the people of your choice or familiar and disfamiliar (iii) Tick mark on the boxes of every class to which you agree.

The above schedule was presented to 1725 Americans and on the basis of the information obtained, the final conclusion of every class was made. Then, it was changed into the percentage form. For this 1725 was supposed to be equal of 100. On this basis, the percentage was calculated of the answer in favour.

Likert Scale: In 1932, the Likert scale was invented by Likert. With the help of this scale, he tried to measure the attitudes of various social classes and individuals to the imperialism, internationalism and Negroes. In the Likert scale, some statements related to various subjects are collected and the subjects are asked to express their views or attitudes to it. The degree of attitudes of the different subjects are expressed in the form of strongly approve, aprove, undecided, disapprove, strongly disapprove. These five categories are ranked chronologically in the order of 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1. Those statements which get higher marks are considered as more attitude friendly. Those statements which have no correlation with the whole score are being listed separately.

The score yielded by Likert scale can be interpreted only in terms of where the individual’s score falls relative to the distribution of scores of the other people. The score does not have absolute meaning.

Both, Bogardus’ social distance scale and the Likert scale have due importance and relevance in the social sciences especially in Sociology and Psychology. In knowing the social perception and attitudes of different social groups and classes, these scales helps a lot. It help in knowing the public opinion and taste which are of great importance for social scientists, politician,s economists and religious leaders. It also helps in establishing a democratic society marked by rationality and scientific temperament. Ethnic behaviour, religious attitudes, voting behaviours, streotypes etc. may scientifically interpreted with the help of these scales which are of worth importance in the realm of Sociology.

Answer : In sociological words the very term "formal education" refers to the process of education which is institutionalised and operate in an organisational way. The formal system of education has been initially derived from the informal system because without informality one may not expect the significance of formality in any spheres of life. The emergence of formal education may be traced when the modern industrial capitalist society emerged. Earlier, around the world, the basic educational values were imparted through family, religion and society. It is a purposeful and goal oriented system of education which follow certain path to realize the goal. In other words, it is particularistic and stereotype in nature.

The modern economy and the organisation require specialist or skilled persons to perform certain types of assignments. These skills and techniques are being imparted through formal and institutionalised system of education. Thus, one can observe wide prevalence of modern educational institutions in the modern society. In this system, the nature, concept, methodology, means of education and entire infrastructure and institutional norms are well defined and strictly followed.

The term "socialization", in sociological literature has been defined as a process of inculcating or internalising the cultural values, norms, customs, folkways, mores etc of the society. It is a life long process of learning of the various facets of society. Some of the important agencies of socialization are family, neighbourhood, peer group, school etc. Cooley has argued in his theoretical consideration of socialization that it is the looking glass self in which the child or a man perceive their self and accordingly mould it. On the other hand, George Herbert Mead has argued about individual self (I) and social self (Me) and propounded that during the socialization process the development of ‘Me’ is being ensured. In psychological terms, Freud says that neither 'id' nor 'surperego' , but it is the 'ego' which is being refined or brushed up during the process of socialization.

As far as distinction between the formal education and socializaiton is concerned, it may be reasonably assumed that the formal education is not directly involved in the process of socialization. Secondly, the socialization is not mainly oriented towards the realization of the objectives of formal education. In the socialization process, overall development in different direction is specially oriented to impart some specialized skill and has correlation with morality or building a national character. Inspite of all these differentiation, there is some correlation between formal education and socialization. It is the formal education through which one can socialise oneself. Long time formal education make a tremendous impact on the personality and thinking of the individual and society as a whole. This can be traced in the modern organisational set up of the private, and public sector. For example, Israeli 'kibbutz' is a formal institution which used to socialise the children similarly as in the developed world like U.S.A., U.K., France etc. The formal institutions are playing conducive roles in the process of socialization.

Informal education simply refers to the non-intitutionalized form of education which is generally transmitted by tradition, family, society, custom, folkways, mores etc. The entire thinking or personality which is shaped by the informal education play very strong roles in life in comparison to the formal system. The social change may be perceived as a change in the social relationships, values and the entire structural and functional set up of the society. It is a continuous process. In the process of social change, the informal system of education is playing remarkable roles. The values or lessons inculcated in family and society becomes the integral part of the personality. According to these values, the individual and group respond to the society. If the values are rational, liberal, scientific and logical then the individual and society are likely to prefer social change. The conservative and traditional system could no longer exist in the society. Similarly, if the ethos of education are traditional and conservative in nature, it may be considered as a hurdle in the process of social change, for example, those countries who have adopted the democratic and secular political order may not tolerate any conservative and dogmatic belief or values. In China and Russia, the collective conscience of the people may not tolerate any slogan or values against the communist order. In India also, secular order and democratic polity will not accept any traditional or conservative idea. Thus, in building the future personality system and order of the society, the informal system of education may play a very sound role.

To sum up, it may be said that formal education and socialization are different but correlated. On the other hand, informal education and social change may be considered as conplementary. Informal education and to some extent formal education are playing favourable roles in the process of socialization and social change in the society.

Answer : The technical term 'social policy' simply refers to the matters pertaning to health, education, housing, social insurance and national assistance. In 1951 two American social scientists D.Lerner and H.D. Lasswell edited a review of social science in relation to broad matters of public and social policy entitled the Policy Science : Recent Development in Scope and Method. This work aimed to stress the importance of social science for clarifying the assumption behind social thought, to disentangling values from facts and for arriving at suitable method for thinking about issues and testing ideas: above all for converting general priciples into specific ideas of action. A concise and clear contribution to this field may be found in T.H. Marshall's Social Policy (1965) where it is suggested that the task of social policy is to determine the order of priority of claims against the national product.

In India comprehensive planning has favoured social research. The Research Programme Committee of Planning Commission has played on important part in encouraging and sponsoring research in a number of fields which directly concern government planning. The central Institute of study and Research in Community Development which was established in 1958 is so far being largely concerned with the traning of personnel in the community development programme. The work of the institute is potentially of great importance, for not only does it deal with vast and crucial area of Indian social life but it brings together legislators, administrators, research workers and those engaged in the programme activities for wide-ranging discussion of problems, policy and achievements.

Some similar development may be traced in Western Europe where numerous surveys have been made on behalf of government departments. The Danish Parliament established in 1958, a National Institute of Applied Social Research to undertake a continuing programme of research on problems of social welfare. Thus, most governments now collect basic economic information and social problems such as crime and deliquency, dependency, housing, health education, level of living and family budget.

Thus, is may be said that the social policy is meticulously formulated by keeping in mind various socio-economic issues or problems. The main objectives of social policy are: to eliminate social problems and to ensure socio economic growth and development of the society. Sometimes social policy adopts long term objectives and planned way of eradicating social problems. In the underdeveloped and developing countries, its significance is of paramount importance.

As far as role of social policy in modernising and reconstructing the developing societies is concerned, it may be reasonably assumed that adoption of social policy is the essential element in it. In the developing societies there are so many social and economic problems such as poverty, unemployment, low agricultural product, low per capita income, lack of industrialisation etc. These are such a problems, the solution of which requires adequate planning and scientifically framed social policy in terms of available resources. For e.g. to ensure industrialisation in any developing countries, firstly the nature of industrialisation and its future scope is being considered. It requires a particular period of time to give its fruits to the society. Industrialisation is followed by urbanisation and modernisation in the society. It will also strengthen the overall infrastructure of the society. Thus, according to Marx, it is infrastructure which shapes the superstructure of society. In this way the society will be modernised not only in terms of infrastructure but also in terms of superstructure; the values, cultural traits and style of life.

During the earlier decade China's population was rapidly increasing which was a threat to the society, but now with the adoption of proper social policy, its population growth is largly controlled. In comparision to China, India's population growth rate is very rapid and if the present trend will continue, it will cross the China by 2045. India's population Policy has failed becuase it lacks proper resources, community participation, bureaucratic will power and illiteracy of the society. The rural development in India and Bangladesh has made progress because these countries have adopted the versatile approach of planning and policy formulation. The adoption of Five Year Plans and Nehruvian model of industralisation have been largely accelerated the process of modernization in India. In cases of Islamic countries of the world, the process of modernization are still lagging behind because of some fundamentalist and conservative or particulariastic value system. The Social Policy must consider the importance of education in modernising a society because it is the education through which modernization emerge anywhere and in any society. In India also, the process of modernization made a departure in ninteenth century with the emergence of modern western education. The emergence of democratic political system, Russian and French Revolution and industrialisation etc. occured as a result of modern education. Thus, it may be concluded that the social policy must consist the development objectives, eradicative measures of social problems and education. In the developing societies, there are numerous problems which hinders the process of modernization. Therefore, it should be, on the one hand, focussed on eliminating the problems and on the other hand, introducing modernising elements.

Answer : The structural change refers to large-scale change over a long period of time which are of different nature. These change come into being by total replacement of older forms of structure and by substituting them with new ones. Revolutionary change in the society is the good example of structural changes. The objective of such a change is to alter the entire basis of the older social structure, its basic institutions and replacement with the new one. The institutions of ownership of property, family, political system and arrangement of social classes or castes and basic cultural ideas and beliefs are also replaced by new one in a revolutionary social change. Such a change is known as the structural change. The revolutionary social movement is generally associated with the emergence of structural change in the society.

In has been propounded by the sociologists that sometimes the structural change in the societies take place not only by the socialist revolutionary movement. It may also happen with the basic change in scientific and technological knowledge. This is the reason why, in the 17th century, the industrial revolution occurred in the European Society. Here, due to forces released by science and technology, and its accompanying ideologies, many changes took place in the society, which replaced old institutions by a new one. The caste like 'estate' and feudal agrarian system were abolished by it. In place of theological and military feudalism, democratic political structure was introduced and theological social outlook was replaced by a secular outlook. These changes, though not touching as broadly upon all gamut of social life and replacing all by them were nevertheless, instrumental in the replacement of most of the traditional social structure.

According to Karl Marx the modern industrial capitalist society has been preceded by the structural change in the Asiatic and feudal society. He imagined that a day will come when the industrial capitalist society will be overthrown by the proletariat revolution and communist social set up will be established. According to him change in the means of production brings structural change in the society or what he calls relation of production.

The endogenic factors of socio-structural change refers to those factors which are found within the society or its structure itself. It implies that this type of change does not consist of the outer factor such as cultural borrowing, invention and discoveries of the outer societies. That is, the factors of changes which are either inherent or sorted out from the happening of existing social institutions and structure of the society. MacIver and Page has argued about the 'cultural lag' which refers to any one aspect of development of the materialistic culture, while the non-materialistic culture remains unchanged or has slow rate of change. This may not be called a structural transformation of society.

One of the endogenic factors of structural change is the size of the population. The rapidly increasing volume of population gradually proceeds towards the institutional and organisational set-up of the society and change its structure for example, the democratic decentralisation and the Panchayati Raj system adopted by the Government to pull more people in the decision making process. Secondly, the coming of the secular and democratic political system in India, to a great extent, has been caused by the weakining of the Varna system and feudal or monarchical state of the society. In the endogenic factors the policy of the government, educational system, change in the religion of the concerned society, economic productivity etc., play crucial roles. The new discoveries, invention, and development of infrastructure by the sweat of the brow of the society itself are the endogenic factors, which bring structural change in the society.

Answer : Culture is a way of acting, manners, inheritance of social values and a way of living in the society. It consists of art, knowledge, belief, morals, customs, instituttions etc of the society. Education may be perceived as an agency through which the cultural traits and characteristics are internalised where the cultural values are formally learnt and taught. The educational institutions are also responsible for cultural preservance and change. Some of the irrelevant elements of the culture are gradually eradicated whereas some newly emergent traits which may play crucial roles are incorporated in the culture through education. The informal education in the family and society also provides environment to learn the cultural values of the society. Thus, the cultural change in the society is very closely associated with the educational institutions. In India, modernisation, westernisation, and sanskritisation are some of the newly emergent cultural changes especially brought up by the educational system. In the process of globalisation, the modern education is playing pivotal roles.

Answer : The development in science and technology has exerted tremendous impact on social value and social change. The society is transforming from the industrial to the post industrial society. The social consequences of science and technology may be categorised under the two headings, namely the positive and negative consequences. The positive consequences are as follows:

Firstly, poverty is the major problem in India and the world. The agricultural and industrial production has increased manyfold with the application of new equipment and technology. For example, the Green revolution in the decade of 1960s in the Punjab and western Uttar Pradesh were chiefly brought by the high yielding variety of seeds, new irrigation system, and the application of new equipments such as tractor, thresher etc. India became self-dependent in food.

Secondly, the modern means of communication like computer has promoted the modern education. Communication has brought revolutionary change in the society. Thirdly the development of science and technology has sponsored the modern rationality, scientific temperament, individualism etc. which have entered in the thinking and consideration of the people. Fourthly industrialisation is closely associated with the urbaniation and urban growth in the society. The urban living consists of formality, loose kinship ties, isolated nuclear family, pollution, slums, high rate of crime etc. Fifthly, the industrialistion and scientific discoveries have enhanced the status of women in the society. Chiefly, the urban working women enjoy more independent personality due to their economic independence. Sixthly, the important social consequences of science and technology is the emergence of 'composite culture'. That is a culture, which is equally shared by all the subcultural group. Seventhly the process of secularization is gradually getting more significance with the rise in science and technology. The secular value and tradition are getting very significant position in the society. The secular values make rational and objective interpretation of the religious ethos and belief. It equally regards all religious tradition. Finally, the higher standard of living and increase in the human interaction have brought all round change in the society which are associated with the science and technology in the society. The economic growth and social development have its root in the science and technology in the society.

The above are the positive social consequences of science and technology in the society. Some of the dysfunctional social consequences of science and technology on society are associated with various social problems. It is really a difficult thing to call it a boon or bane, or both. The nuclear explosion, mechanical infrastructure, bomb etc. may destroy the human existence within a minute. The environmental pollution is rapidly increasing which has given birth to numerous health problems. The air, water and noise pollution is polluting the entire society. According to Durkheim, in the industrial society, the social cohesion or solidarity is very low. The dissociative social processes such as conflict, competition etc are more active than the associative processes such as cooperation, adjustment, accomodation etc. Sociologists such as Goode and Parsons etc. assume that the science and technology or industrialisation have disorganised the traditional structure of famiy, marriage and kinship in the society. According to Talcott Parsons the "isolated nuclear family" has become the feature of modern industrial society. There is the loose kinship ties and formality are found among the kin groups.

Conclusion: Science and technology have brought multi-faceted social consequences. Some of them are positive whereas others are negative. On the one hand, it has ensured growth and social development, the other side of it is associated with social problems. Therefore, to call it either boon or bane is not reasonable. In fact, it is the combination of both of these factors. It is one of the emerging new trends for sociological investigation.

Answer : The universalisation of primary education simply refers to ensure primary education facility to all section, group, gender, caste, class etc., of the society. India along with most of the countries of the world has enumerated it as the fundamental right of the people. The government has taken the responsibility of providing elementary or basic education to all. Schooling has become synonyms with books, homework, punishment, competition, exams, reports, correction and marks. The joy of learning, thinking for himself, freedom and affection are words which is used thoughtfully in describing the school. Most of the countries have made headway in ensuring the fundamental right. We appear to be a way behind our plan. The burgeoning population and insufficient infrastructure are another aspect of the problem. Inadequate numbers of teachers and unsatisfactory teachers training are other aspects. Philosophically we are cul-de-sac with the Yashpal report stating that "The children who drop out of school, refusing to compromise with the burden of incomprehension are intellectually superior to those who remain”.

We have to own up that our school education system with the complex set of factors involved, is a giant bureaucracy attempting to marshal material resources (building the furniture) and human resources (teachers) to deliver quality education experience of the nation's children is woefully inadequate. Like all large centralised systems not only are the objectives stated and the methodologies defined. No one would doubt that a child of age 10 should be able to read write and do some simple arithmetic.

But the state of school education does not make the delivery of this capacity to our nation's children either easy or apparent. We must ask if the problem has become fuzzy because of confusion between education and schooling. When a student fails to grasp a concept in language or mathematics or in science, invariably the response is "Do more problem, writing, reading, work etc. More schools of this kind that are not functioning, seem to be suspiciously like this often used idiom of school education.

In countries with diversities of culture there has always been diverse solution in response to the need of the society. And in our society this diversity is carried forward in time by individuals. Strangely, it is this diversity which is making our extraordinarily imaginative complex and crude system of education reasonably functional. The whole system perilously survives because against all odds, a few teachers do manage to make difference and a large number of students somehow cope.

Universalising primary education is closely connected with low infrastructure schools of small size and simple methods. Few schools shed brutality and restore relationship as the centre of the student teacher interaction. There is something for the established monoliths in this direction, not out of a feeling of doing something noble and supportive of the poor for their own healthy survival into the 21st century. Some of the major factors of hinderence in the universalisation of primary education are; poverty, lack of community consiciousness, improper governance and administration, lack of transparent policy of the government and proper infrastructure.

Answer : The social development consists of the enhancement in the life style of the people, upliftment of the poor and deprived class, consumption of modern means by the people and all-round upliftment of the people in society. Education has been playing significant role in the development process by imparting among the people the values correlated to it. In spite of high rate of productivity, a society may not be considered developed because the entire wealth and power are concentrated in a few hands. Educational experts of the society possess wide and intensive knowledge about the culture, economics, polity etc. They suggest proper measure to ensure the equality and social development. In the formation of the developmental policy, the interest of different segments of the society are represented in its contents. The social policy consists of ideology, strategy and means to reach the ends. Those who formulate and implement the policy are expected to be technical experts from educational institutions. The consciousness, which is the determination of development, are mainly propagated by the educated group of the society. Educational system also creates proper socio-cultural environment which are conducive for it.

Answer : Social inequality refers to the unequal distribution of social rewards and statuses. The power, prestige and wealth of the society are considered limited, hence all the people of the society are not able to get these things in abundance while others remain deprived of it. The social inequality also consists of the opportunity provided by the society to these different segments or strata. Education is considered as one of important mechanisms to eliminate inequalities and bring harmony in the society. It provides equal opportunity to all irrespective of class, race, caste etc to enhance their status and position with the completion of some educational attainment. In India, inequality is the inheritance of the people; it is rooted in the social system itself. It is considered irrational. The eductional system judges this rooted inequality on the rational and logical ground and makes a due interpretation of it. It also suggests us its merits, demerits and social significance. A new approach and trend to look into these inequalities objectively are given to society by the various educational systems.