Research Methods & Analysis

Answer : A variable is defined as anything that has a quantity or quality that varies. The research variables, of any scientific experiment or research process, are factors that can be manipulated and measured. The key to designing any experiment is to look at what research variables could influence the outcome of experimental research. Gender, color and country are variables. There are many types of variable but the most important, for the vast majority of research methods are the independent and dependent variables.

The dependent variable is the variable a researcher is interested in. The changes to the dependent variable are what the researcher is trying to measure with all their techniques. An independent variable is a variable believed to affect the dependent variable. This is the variable that the researcher will manipulate to see if it makes the dependent variable change. For example, if you designed an experiment to determine how quickly a cup of coffee cools, the manipulated independent variable is time and the dependent measured variable is temperature.

A statement containing the variable is called a proposition. It may contain one or more than one variable. Prior to the formulation of a proposition the researcher has to develop strong logical arguments which could help in establishing the relationship. For example, age at marriage and education are the two variables that could lead to a proposition: the higher the education, the higher the age at marriage. If the relationship refers to an observable reality, then the proposition can be put to test, and any testable proposition is hypothesis.

Answer : Random sampling is one of the most popular types of random or probability sampling. In this technique, each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected as subject. An unbiased random selection and a representative sample is important in drawing conclusions from the results of a study. Due to the representativeness of a sample obtained by simple random sampling, it is reasonable to make generalizations from the results of the sample back to the population.

It is free of classification error, and it requires minimum advance knowledge of the population other than the frame. Its simplicity also makes it relatively easy to interpret data collected in this manner.

For these reasons, simple random sampling best suits situations where not much information is available about the population and data collection can be efficiently conducted on randomly distributed items, or where the cost of sampling is small enough to make efficiency less important than simplicity. If these conditions do not hold, stratified sampling or cluster sampling may be a better choice.

Researchers use stratified random sampling to obtain a sample population that best represents the entire population being studied. Its advantages include minimizing sample selection bias and ensuring certain segments of the population are not overrepresented or underrepresented.

Stratified random sampling is also advantageous when it can be used accurately because it ensures each subgroup within the population receives proper representation within the sample.

Answer : Post modern research have started questioning the traditional qualitative research practices in obtaining social knowledge. As a part of criticism new research methodologies have been recently developed like auto/biographical sociology, which include personalized account of author’s experiences got greater attention by sociologist to have new research practice in the study of social life.

Biographical sociology encourages rethinking of terms such as validity, reliability and objectivity, offering a critique of representation and legitimation within social science disciplines.

As C. Wright Mills insisted that unless sociology works at the level of biography it does not and cannot work at the level of structure. He coined the phrase “Sociological Imagination” to speak to the need to understand the interplay between public issues (social structures) and personal troubles (biography). For Mills, neither the history of society nor the life of an individual can be grasped without understanding both.

Biographical sociology offers a unique approach to understanding individual-society relations. Moving beyond stale structure-agency debates, it allows for a situated analysis of agency-in-structure, of the reflective individual engaging society.In biographical sociology the researcher is firmly in the picture, in context, interacting with others.

Thus, as C. Wright Mills visioned “Sociological Imagination” of sociologist is required in developing unscientific method of understanding the personal opinion and experience in auto/biography to study the social structure by intertwining personal with social reality is becoming a future sociological research methodology in post modern era.

Answer : Scholars from various disciplines ranging from psychology, economist, anthropology to sociologist seek to understand the most complex consumer behavior through various research techniques to explain the complicated human behavior. Hence, it requires interdisciplinary approach to explore the dynamic social reality and its correlates in the study of consumer behavior. The importance of study of consumer behavior is for future research efforts in understanding the complex nature of consumer. Various research scholars have proposed the use of Implicit Association Test in studies of brands, consumer attitudes and behaviours. Sheppard, on the other hand, proposed Reasoned Action Theory for determining as to why consumers buy.

The field of economics has researched the consumer behavior from the rationality perspective but it neglected the emotional aspect of consumer. On the other hand, Psychology relied on internal variables of consumer in explaining how he/she process incoming information and makes purchase decisions.

Sociologist does not deal with consumer behavior specifically rather they are more interested in dealing with the social context within which consumer behavior takes place. Therefore, Sociology centers around groups and social institutions by using concepts like role theory, social class, family life cycle, diffusion of innovation process and population groups have greater implications for consumer researcher.

Positivists, like the classical economists, they operate from the belief that the consumer makes rational consumptive decisions after weighing alternatives.

The goal of the positivist is to predict consumer behavior. The research methods of positivists were borrowed mainly from the natural sciences and range from experiments, survey techniques, and observation. The data collected are quantitative in nature and lend themselves to many parametric and nonparametric statistical analysis.

In the postmodern era, ethnography research method is used in understanding consumer behavior. Ethnography is the technique in which the researcher places himself or herself in the social setting to study the consumer’s various cultural practices.

Consequently, the validity of the data gathered would depend on the interpretation of the researcher. As such, the interpretive researcher engages in subjective, qualitative research based on the assumption that there is no objective truth, but that reality is subjective.

The goal of the interpretive is to gain understanding of consumer behavior in different situations rather than predicting his or her consumption related acts.

The latest new field is the evolutionary psychology. Essentially, the foundational paradigm of evolutionary psychology rests on the idea that the human mind is shaped by natural selection as Darwin’s theory of evolution.

John Tooby and Leda Cosmides, pioneered the new field of evolutionary psychology, postulated Standard Social Science Model (SSSM), which emphasizes the dominant influence of experience and culture in shaping human behavior.

Hence, in conclusion it can be advocated that the research methodology for understanding consumer behavior is still in evolving stage only, across various disciplines of social studies to explore the social reality.

In the mean time, cultural anthropology, cousin of Sociology, provide the required research technique through ethnography methodology in the study of consumer behavior and its social correlates.

The quest for generalizable explanations and accurate predictions of consumer behavior will continue because a truly scientific odyssey has no set destinations on its long, if not infinite, journey of discovery.

Answer : Sociologists make a clear distinction between the terms sex and gender. Sex refers to one’s biological identity of being male or female while gender refers to the socially learned expectations and behaviors associated with being male or female. Sex is biologically assigned while gender is culturally learned.

Sociologists are particularly interested in gender identity and how it determines gender roles. Gender identity appears to form very early in life and is most likely irreversible by age 4. Although the exact causes of gender identity remain unknown, biological, psychological, and social variables clearly influence the process.

Functionalist theorists argue that men fill instrumental roles in society while women fill expressive roles, which works to the benefit of society. Further, it is our socialization into prescribed roles that is the driving force behind gender inequality.

For example, these theorists see wage inequalities as the result of choices women make, which involve family roles that compete with their work roles.

Symbolic interactionists look at gender from the micro perspective and examine gender stratification on a day-to-day level. For example, men are more likely to interrupt women in conversations and their workspaces generally reflect greater power. These theorists also focus on how gender roles are internalized by males and females.

Conflict theorists view women as disadvantaged because of power inequalities between women and men that are built into the social structure. For example, from this viewpoint, wage inequalities that exist between men and women result from men’s historic power to devalue women’s work and benefit as a group from the services that women’s labor provides.

However, Margaret Mead believes these patterns are not universal. One needs to investigate the variation in the meanings of being masculine and feminine. Such studies may help us understand a society’s division of labor, differential power and status structure, in general, how society’s privileges and responsibilities are allocated. To modify the social system may mean first modifying individual beliefs about masculinity and femininity.

Answer : Quantitative methods are those methods who advocate the use of scientific and quantitative methods for sociological analysis. Various examples of data collection in quantitative research are surveys, questionnaires, interviews, and comparative methods. Durkheim used this method in his study of suicide. The strength of quantitative research is that, it produces quantifiable, reliable data that can be generalized to some larger population.

Quantitative analysis also allows researchers to test specific hypotheses, in contrast to qualitative research, which is more exploratory. The weakness of the quantitative approach is that it decontextualizes human behavior in a way that removes the event from its real world setting and ignores the effects of variables that have not been included in the model. It also lacks a depth and richness of data that is present with qualitative research.

Because there are so many participants using quantitative methods, it is impossible to know the details about each and every one. Laboratory experiments such as in natural sciences are not possible in social sciences. It is because, the laboratory experiments are performed in unnatural setting.

If subjects are not isnformed then it leads to ethical issues and if they are informed then it will change their behavior.

Compared to quantitative data, qualitative data are seen as much richer, more vital, as having greater depth and are more likely to present a true picture of the ways of life of the people, their experiences, attitudes and beliefs.

Those who belong to interpretative strand such as symbolic interactionists and the phenomenologists prefer the qualitative methods, as reality is very complex and no one method is proper to study it. Thus, for a proper sociological enquiry we need to complement with different methods. Thus, both quantitative and qualitative methods are needed for a fruitful and useful sociological enquiry.

Answer : For the study of incidents in social research there are two study methods used on the basis of nature of content-first is qualitative method and second is quantitative method. Somewhere both these methods are used together for the study of a subject. That method used to study of abstract fact is known as qualitative methods. In sociology for study of abstract facts e.g. social relation, values, conception, beliefs, customs and instincts, mainly qualitative method is used.

This method is based on assumption that human natures are complex. Qualitative or abstract cannot be measured like natural science. So in such type of study method, main focus is on intense analysis of an incident.

Following study methods are used in qualitative method—

1. Case study
2. Inductive or deductive method
3. Sociometry
4. Scale of social distance
5. Community study method

Methods used for study of concrete facts or incidents are known as quantitative method. For example, for the study of population growth, sex ratio, poverty, illiteracy, quantitative methods are used.

Based on natural science or positivistic approach, this method has assumption that social incidents are like natural incident and its measurement is possible. The main study methods in quantitative method are-

1. Social survey method
2. Historical method
3. Statistical method
4. Comparative method.

Answer : In sociology, for the study of concrete facts or incident, quantitative method is used. In social sciences, comparative method is used to compare different societies or to compare different groups, institutions etc of same society. Its main idea is to discover a general theory by clarifying similarity and differentiality found in different societies or in social structure, culture of groups.

Traditions of comparative method have been mostly found in evolutionist sociologists and this method has been accepted as a best method by sociologists and social scientists. Comparative method has been extensively used by anthropologists in the study of intra culture and tribal study. This method has been given importance firstly by Durkheim in his book “The Rules Of Sociological Method”.

In this method, relation between incidents and their causes are represented. If we study special incident in different situations and search for their cause, then those causes which present in different situation are treated as cause of that special incident. In this way, by comparing incidents in different situations we can search for their cause, and this is Comparative method. Durkheim has used comparative method in his study of religion and social explanation of suicide. Max Weber has also used this method in his study of “Protestant Ethics and Spirit of Capitalism”.

Comparative method has some flaws. Difficulties come in it when we compare societies. It is difficult to compare a whole society with other whole society. So comparison between social institutions is easier than comparison of whole society. Since Comparative method is based on deduction, vagueness of deduction may influence the study. Despite above limitations, Comparative method keeps important place in sociology.

Answer : The purpose of the scientific social research is to establish “truths” that are evident to everybody. The method of subjective provides a basis for working with events that are outside the domain of the scientific method.

The subjective method is not able to reveal the universal truths but is able to solve problems and provide perspectives for individual according to his or her abilities. The rules of logic of logic, thought and perceptions are part of subjective method.

Qualitative methodology in sociological research also recognises that the subjectivity of the researcher is intimately involved in research. Subjectivity guides everything from the choice of that one studies, to formulating hypothesis, to selecting methodologies and interpreting data. A key issue that arises with the recognition of subjectivity is how it affects objectivity.

The focus group discussion is a form of qualitative research in which a group of people are asked about their perceptions, opinions, beliefs and attitudes towards a particular issue, product, service, values, advertisement, etc. Here questions are asked in an interactive group setting where participants are free to talk with other group members. In the history of social research first focus groups were created at the Bureau of Applied Social Research in the USA by sociologist Robert K. Merton.

The focus group discussion is a rapid assessment, semi-structured data gathering method in which a purposively selected set of participants gather to discuss issues and concerns based on a list of key themes drawn up by the researcher.

This qualitative research technique was originally developed to give marketing researchers a better understanding of the data from qualitative consumer surveys.

As an indispensable tool for marketing researchers, the focus group discussion has become extremely popular because it provides a fast way to learn from the target audience. Marketing and media studies have shown that the focus group discussion is cost-effective technique for eliciting views and opinions of prospective clients, customers and end-users. In agriculture, focus groups have been used to obtain insights into target audience perceptions, needs, problems, beliefs and reasons for certain practices.

To keep the session of group discussion on track while allowing respondents to talk freely and spontaneously the facilitator uses a discussion guide that lists the main topics or themes to be covered in the session. It serves as a road map that guides the facilitator in covering the list of topics and keeping the discussion on track. The number of items in the guide is generally kept to a minimum to leave enough time for in-depth discussion. It should focus only on relevant research issues.

The logistical arrangements for focussed group discussion involves invitation of participants, group composition, venue selections, seating arrangement, recordings, writing the focus group discussion report, analysing the content of the group discussion by reviewing the notes from the focus group, etc.

Answer : The test of reliability is an important test of sound measurement. A measuring instrument is reliable if it provides consistent results. It is also fact that a reliable measuring instrument does contribute to validity but a reliable instrument need not to be a valid instrument. Reliability is not valuable as validity but it is easier to assess reliability in comparison to validity. If the quality of reliability is satisfied by an instrument then it is clear that the temporary and situational factors are not interfering.

There are two aspects of reliability viz, stability and equivalence. The stability aspect is concerned with securing consistent results with the repeated measurements of the same thing with the same instrument.

One can easily determine the degree of stability by comparing the results of repeated instruments.

The equivalence aspects consider how much error may get introduced by different investigators or different samples of the items being studied. A good way to test for the equivalence of measurements by two investigators is to compare their observations of the same events.

However, the reliability of a test can be improved by following two ways:

1. By standardising the conditions under which the measurement takes place. One must ensure that external sources of variation such as boredom, fatigue, etc are minimised to the possible extent.
2. By carefully deigning directions for measurement with no variation from group to group by using trained and motivated persons to conduct the research and also by broadening the sample of items used. This will improve equivalence aspect.

Answer : In his Systems Approach, Parsons sees society as a system. There are four general needs that must be met for proper functioning of the system: adaptation, goal attainment, integration, and latent pattern maintenance. In complex, differentiated societies, these functions are met by separate institutional spheres. These different institutions are integrated through the system pressures of mutual dependency and generalized medium of exchange.

Social System itself is only one of four systems that surround human behaviour. There are cultural, social, personality and organic system, each corresponding to AGIL functional prerequisites. There is a constant flow of information from top to bottom and the energy flows bottom up. Parsons referred to this scheme as the Cybernetic Hierarchy of control.

Answer : Content Analysis is a methodology in the social sciences for studying the content of communication. Earl Babbie defines it as “the study of recorded human communications, such as books, websites, paintings and laws.” It is most commonly used by researchers in the social sciences to analyze recorded transcripts of interviews with participants.

This technique basically involves summarizing and quantitative analysis of messages that rely on the scientific methods (including objectivity, intersubjectivity, a priori design, reliability, validity, generalisability, and hypothesis testing) and is not limited as to the type of variables that may be measured on the context in which the messages are created or presented.

It often involves building and applying a “concept dictionary” or fixed vocabulary of terms on the basis of which words are extracted from the textual data for concording or statistical computation.

Answer : Serendipity refers to chance discovery of theoretically important facts in the course of research, leading the scientist to new discoveries he did not anticipate. Serendipity is used as a sociological method in Anselm Leonard Strauss’ and B.G. Glaser’s Grounded Theory. It builds on ideas by sociologist Robert K. Merton, who in Social Theory and Social Structure referred to the “Serendipity pattern” as a fairly common experience of observing an unanticipated, anomalous and strategic datum which becomes the basis for developing a new theory or for extending an existing theory.

Answer : Nomothetic method is one of the research methods in which analysis is directed towards the formulation of general principles. From sociological perspective, application of this method entails that individual events are studied not for their own sake but for their significance in so far as they contribute to the formulation of generalization. Sociology and physical science are regarded as nomothetic sciences because their primary goal is to abstract generalization from specific events and individual facts.

Idiographic method, on the other hand is a technique of studying human behaviour by a thorough analysis of individual cases. Here the emphasis is more on detailed description and in-depth study than on generalizations. The case study method may be considered on idiographic method where emphasis is placed upon the complete understanding of each individual case rather than upon deriving analytical generalization from the common characteristics of a large number of cases. History is regarded as an idiographic discipline because it is more concerned with studying particular events and configuration of events in specific settings than with deriving general principles of laws.

Answer : Once the problem to be answered in the course of research is finally instituted, the researcher may, if feasible, proceed to formulate tentative solutions or answers to it. These proposed solutions or explanations are called hypothesis, which the researcher is obliged to test on the basis of facts already known or which can be made known. If such hypothesis are not formulated even implicitly, the researcher cannot effectively go ahead with the investigation of his problem, because, in the absence of direction which hypothesis typically provide, the researcher would not know what facts to look for and what relation or order to search for among them. Lundberg aptly remarks:

“The only difference between gathering data without a hypothesis and gathering them with one is that in the latter case, we deliberately recognize the limitation of our senses and attempt to reduce their fallibility by limiting our field of investigation so as to prevent greater concentration of attention on particular aspects which past experience lead us to believe are insignificant for our purpose. Hypotheses may be developed from a variety of sources.

We examine some major ones. Personal life-stories are a factor in determines the kinds of a Parson’s perception and conception and this factor may in turn direct him to certain hypothesis quite readily. For example, Thorstein Veblen, being an outsider studied capitalism in England objectively and without any knowledge of it. Analogies are often a fountainhead of valuable hypotheses. Students of sociology and political science in the course of their studies would have come across analogies wherein society & state are compared to biological organism.

Hypothesis may also rest on the finding of other studies. The researcher on the basis of the findings of other studies may hypothesize that similar relationship between specified variables will hold good in the present study too.

Answer : Sampling is an important method used in the formulation of social research. As the rate of social change has increased, the importance of sampling as a technique of social research is also increased.

For practical and cost effective reasons, it is often impossible to collect information about entire population of people of things in which social researchers are interested.

In these cases, a sample of the total is selected for study. The main criteria are to ensure that a sample provides faithful representation of the totality from which it is selected, and to know as precisely as possible the probability that a sample is reliable in this way.

Randomization meets these criteria, because it protects against bias in the selection process and also provides a basis for applying statistical distribution theory. It allows an estimate to be made of the probability that conclusion drawn from the sample are correct.

Sample is a collection of observations for which one has data with which he/she is going to work. Almost any set of observation for which one has data constitutes a sample. In other words, sampling means a method in which a portion of the Universe is selected with a view to drawing conclusions about the Universe or population.

Population is not necessarily synonymous with a population of a community or a State. Population in the manner is used in sampling statistics is constituted of all the individuals, things, events, documents or observation, belonging to a designated category characterizing specific attributes which a particular study should principally cover. A.L. Bowley has done a pioneering work on sampling statistics in the realm of social sciences. The importance of sampling lies in the vastness and unorganized social structure.

The foremost importance of sampling is time saving. As societies are dynamic and particularly rapid changes are taking place in modem societies, so sampling enables to use short-cut methods or else the measurement would be out of date before the study on the population is completed. Sampling helps to study limited population in its totality. As social reality is vast and unorganized, sampling limits the boundaries of social research and save money and manpower.

As sampling is done on small group it is possible to repeat the research on social group again and improve the validity of tabulation and analysis.

Simple random sampling is in a sense, the basic theme of all scientific sampling. It is the primary probability sampling design. Indeed, all other methods of scientific sampling are variations of the simple random sampling A simple random sample is selected by a process that not only gives to each element in the population an equal chance of being included in the sample but also makes the selection of every possible combination of cases in the desired size, equally likely.

Suppose, for example, that one wants to have a simple random sample of two cases from a population of six cases – A, B, C, D, E and F. There will be the following possible combinations of cases, each having two elements from this population viz. AB, AC, AD, AE, AF, BC, BD, BE, BF, CD, CE, CF, EF, DE, EF i.e. in all 15 combinations. If we write each combination on equal cards and mix then ask even a blind man to pick, each of the cards will be afforded the same chance of being selected in the sample.

In the stratified random sampling, the population is first divided into a number of strata. Such strata may be based on a single criterion (e.g. educational level) or a combination of two or more criteria (e.g. age and sex). In stratified random sampling, a simple random sample is taken from each of the strata and such sub samples are brought together to form the total sample.

In general , stratification of the Universe for the purpose of sampling contributes to the efficiency of sampling if it establishes classes, i.e. if it candivide the population into classes of members or elements that are internally comparatively homogenous and relative to one another, heterogeneous, with respect to the characteristics being studied.

It is quite possible that the process of breaking the population down into strata that are internally homogenous and relatively heterogeneous in respect of certain relevant characteristics is prohibitively costly. In such a situation, the researcher may choose to select a large simple random sample to make up high cost by increasing total size of the sample and avoiding hazards attendant upon stratification and not to apply stratified random sampling.

Answer : Objectivity and value neutrality in social research can be understood from the viewpoint of methods and procedures of positivistic and interpretative discipline in social science. August Comte argued that the application of natural science methodology to the study of man would produce a “positive science of society” that represents objectivity in social research. It would show that behaviour in the social world is governed by laws in the same way as bahaviour in the natural world. But on the other, many sociologists reject the view that natural science methodology is appropriate for the study of human behaviour. As a result the natural scientist is not required to explore and take account of the internal consciousness of matter in order to explain its behaviour. The way they understand i.e. interpretative discipline are very much related to subjectivity in social Research. But the fact is that the advocator of objectivity simply observe its activity from the outside. They are able to explain its behaviour merely as a reaction to all external stimulus. In this sense, the data of the natural sciences are draws from direct observation of the behaviour of matter, behaviour which can be qualified according to objective criteria. The same procedures are possible in the observation of human behaviour.

The moral responsibility of the sociologists is the centre of value Judgement in sociology. In research, a scientist does not judge whether it is good or bad for chemicals to combine in a certain way or for the birth rate to go up or down. A researcher is seeking the truth whatever it might be. It is unethical to fake the results of an experiment or other research, so that one can report the kinds of results one wants to find. Sometimes the researcher’s desire unconsciously affects the results of the study. The approach and perspective behind value-neutrality is related in Weberian understanding of the notion of ‘Verstehern’. Weber has given the emphasis that in social research complete value-free observation can’t be possible. Therefore, to study any social phenomena or problems, it needs to observe from the value-neutral basis. It tries to maintain the objectivity in social research.

Answer : In social research we aim at opening new vistas of knowledge and wisdom. Social research helps in finding out social reality, simplifying the mysterious within the common place in social life. It is with the help of social research that social planning can become possible.

It helps in finding similarities and differences of various cultures the methods in which different organizations control different cultures and influence social behaviour and also the extent of different problems which face the society. When facts about cultures and social behaviour are known it becomes possible to have greater power of control over social phenomenon.

It helps in promoting better understanding and social cohesion and brings to surface underlying unity out of diversity of human societies and vice-versa.

A good social research will also help in pointing out the structural changes needed by the society and under the existing situations how far is it possible to introduce such changes and with what speed.

Appropriate welfare reforms can be introduced in the society only when social research helps in finding out their needs and necessities. Even state can introduce legislative measures with the help of the findings of social researchers.

Social research helps the society in making predictions and goals for the future. It becomes possible because they have necessary data at their disposal.

Every social research helps in improving old techniques and innovating the new ones. Exiting tools of research are modified.

Answer : Problem of objectivity in social research: As compared with natural science, there is much of a problem of obtaining objectivity in social research. The problem is primarily because in social research we deal with human beings who live in society and have certain social interests. They participate in social movements and accept certain values and ways of life. They have certain social and emotional attachments which can’t be detached from real life. As such their behaviour, attitude and approach can influence social life.

Infact, there are many difficulties in obtaining objectivity in social research. Personal views, concepts and beliefs of the investigators are bound to creep in the study. An investigator is also influenced by the social, political and economic conditions, situations and environments around him. The problem of objectivity may be outlined in many points: (i) Emotional effects (ii) Complexity of subject matter (iii) Lack of Unifformity (iv) Problem of general knowledge (v) Nature of subject matter (vii) Social philosophy and its effects (viii) Problem of hurried research (ix) Problem of morality (x) Problem of external pressures (xi) The notion of ethnocentrism (xii) Prejudices and bias (xiii) Problem of prevalent notions (xiv) Customs (xv) Vested interests

Value neutrality in social research: A debate in social research continues in terms of value-free, value-neutral and value-laden. Weber considers that in social research, value-free approach can not be possible as positivist pointed out in terms of observation, comparison and experimentation. Weber was a firm advocate of separating the rationality of social inquiry from the attempt to make the world more rational. He argued that the personal evaluation of the sociologist must be separated from the analysis of society that he/she conducted. The main points in this debate of Weber’s understanding can be briefly state as:

(i) The sociologist in his/her study of society is principally concerned with the analysis and understanding of values, as these are the crucial elements of any society. However, the sociologist must not let his/her own values come in the way of a clear understanding of the subject matter.

(ii) The sociologist, as a human being is fundamentally involved in evaluating, or passing certain value judgement. In so far as he is personally involved he himself can hardly avoid having or living by values. The values by which sociology develops, however, are the values by which knowledge and science develop as the commitment to dispassionate inquiry. In this inquiry, the sociologist’s own experience of valuing or disvaluing is itself a data, giving insight into the meaning and relevance of that which he explores.

(iii) The development of a value-free social science in this sense is necessary for creating a body of reliable and assured knowledge. As to whether such knowledge becomes subsequently cause for action is not within the domain of merely sociology as a discipline. Knowledge can guide action only when the discipline itself becomes reliable.

Having discussed the problem of objectivity and value-neutrality in Social Research, we have to examine the limitations associated with the tools of measurement in Social Science Researches. One method can be to find out whether the results still remain consistent even if the measures are consistent and the individuals and the situation remains the same, but test carried out under independent situations. In order to eliminate the chances of errors, it is always better, if there are repeated observations and measurements of the same individuals or situations. But repeated experiments can’t be carried out on human beings because characteristics of the study will go on changing and also any such attempt is likely to create fatigue and annoyance. It is therefore desirable that in such a situation the experiments might be carried out on the sample of the universe rather than universe as a whole.

Answer : To many sociologists, an objective science of society remains the goal of Sociology. Their view of objectivity is summarized: “objectivity means that the conclusion arrived at as the result of inquiry and investigation are independent of the race, colour, creed, occupation, nationality, religion, moral preference and political predisposition of the investigators.” If his research is truly objective , it is independent of any subjective element, the personal desires, that he may have. An increasing number of sociologists now argue that pursuit of an objective value-free Sociology is pursuit of an illusion. Sociologist cannot shed his taken for granted assumptions, prejudices and commitments. He cannot escape from his past experiences which will colour everything he sees. With respect to methodology, it means that the entire research process will be influenced by these factors. They will shape the sociologists assumption about the nature of social reality. Some of the arguments are being advanced for Sociology not being objective : (1) sociological judgement are subjective, being coloured by actors’ own experiences. (2) All propositions are limited in their meaning to particular language context (3) All sociological theories are produced by, and limited to particular social group. Such a doctrine is often taken to be an outcome of the Sociology of knowledge which treats all knowledge as a function of social location. (4) All observation are necessarily theory —laden. (5) In that all members of the society have different values, sociologists will unconsciously but necessarily, have their arguments influenced by their values. Some sociologists argue that objectivity in some or all of the above sense is not necessarily desirable. It is argued that, the sociologists, for example, should be critical and espouse particular values.

Answer : Questionnire is one of the important way of data collection. It asks open-ended and closed ended question from the repondent to know about the issues. But sometimes respondent gives such a answer to the question that it would be hard to say it is objective or true. For example, in a Gallup Poll Survey in 1939, 88% of the US population described themselves as middle class. The survey was repeated again and the ' lower class was replaced by working class. Now, the 51% people described themselves as working class. Thus there is the problem of language. The standard or literary languages are not properly understood by the illiterate population. Questionnaire, due to this reason should be applied to the uniform group. Both, for the literate and illiterate, separate questionnire should be prepared. Secondly, for the various religious, cultural, racial and stratified group, separate questionnire according to their characteristics should be prepared, if not so, the result may be negative. In Indian context also, there is the sharp rural-urban distinction based on caste, language, poverty, unemployment, stratification etc. Thus, it is difficult to get exact data by applying uniform sampling.

Answer : The reliability of sample taken from a population can be assessed by the spread of sampling distribution, measured by standared deviation of this distribution, called the standared errors. Suppose we have a population of N items, of which a certain proportion posses a given car. Out of this population a number of different sample of size can be drawn, this number is very large, when it is small in relation to N. In each of these samples there will be certain proportion of persons who are car owners and the frequency distribution of these proportions is called sampling distribution of ‘P, and the standard deviation of the distribution is called standard error of ‘P, I may be shown that for large values of n. Say n, this distribution is tend towards the normal of Gaussian form and that the standared error of P will be thus in 96 percent of all samples the proportion of car owner will lie in the range.

The larger the value of the simple size n, the smaller the standared error. A little study of the formula will show that the sample size n is much more important in determining the size of the standared error, than the sampling fraction n/N. which shows the proportion of the sample to the total population. At first sight this leads to the surprising result that a sample of 2500 individuals has much the same reliability. Whether it comes from O population of 100,000 individuals or one million. It is alway the aim of the efficient sampling method to give maxium reliability at minimum cost, but it would be clear that any sampling design must achieve a campromise.