Question : Comparative method in sociology.
(1994)
Answer : The comparative or anthropological method in Sociology involves comparison of various kinds of groups of people in order to find out the differences as well as similarities in their ways of life and thus to find out clues to man's social behaviour. Thus, this method is very favourable to sociologist to ascertain relations and interrelation between different aspect of social life. The another reason for adoption of this method in Sociology is that the experimental method and its various stages such as observation, classification, hypotheses etc. cannot be applied for the social investigation.
This method has been used by many sociologists to find out what element in social life are functionally co-related. Taylor used this method in the study of institutions connected with the family of the primitive people and was able to show that the practice of mother in-law avoidance is co-related with the custom of matrilocal residence. Similarly, Weber also finds direct relation between the practical ethics of community and character of its economic system.
But the application of this method is not as simple as it appears. The first difficulty in the application of this method is that social units have different meaning in different countries. For example, the institution of marriage has different meaning for the people of India and for Westerners.
Question : Significance of objectivity in sociological research.
(1993)
Answer : Objectivity is one of the characteristic features of both the natural and social science research methodology. The natural sciences is considered more scientific in approach than the social science because they make high degree of objective studies. On the other hand social sciences are comparatively less objective because of the nature of subject matter. In sociology, the significance of objectivity is of the worth importance because the founding fathers have described it as a scientific discipline. It is exaggerating to call it a scientific subject without attaining some level of objectivity in it. There are various methods of studying sociological as well as social problems. These are participant observation, interview, sampling, survey etc.; the main purpose of which is to get objective knowledges of the concerned problems or issues. Thus it can be said that these methods adopt objective way to get objective facts. For example, a sociologist, when tries to study the number of unemployed youth in a particular country, he works on it in an objective manner to get the exact number. Otherwise, for this matter, a layman makes approximation. Thus, it is apt to adopt more objective approach to make the discipline more scientific.
Question : “Non-positivistic methodology is essential for understanding human behavior.” Discuss.
(2015)
Answer : Anti-positivism emphasizes that social reality is viewed and interpreted by the individual herself according to the ideological positions he/she possesses.
Therefore, knowledge is personally experienced rather than acquired from or imposed from outside. The anti-positivists believe that reality is multi-layered and complex and a single phenomenon is having multiple interpretations. They emphasize that the verification of a phenomenon is adopted when the level of understanding of a phenomenon is such that the concern is to probe into the various unexplored dimensions of a phenomenon rather than establishing specific relationship among the components, as it happens in the case of positivism.
Anti-positivism is marked by three schools of thought in the social science research. These are phenomenology, ethnomethodology and symbolic interactionism. All the three schools of thought emphasize human interaction with phenomena in their daily lives, and suggest qualitative rather than quantitative approach to social inquiry. Phenomenology’ is a theoretical view point which believes that individual behaviour is determined by the experience gained out of one’s direct interaction with the phenomena.
According to enthomethodologists, theoretical concerns centers around the process by which common sense reality is constructed in everyday face-to-face interaction. They are mainly interested in the interpretation people use to make sense of social settings.
The school of thought for ‘symbolic interactionism’ was pioneered by Dewey, Cooley and Mead among others. It basically emphasizes the understanding and interpretation of interactions that take place between human beings. The peculiarity of this approach is that human beings interpret and define each other’s actions instead of merely reacting to each other’s actions.
While positivism stands for objectivity, measurability, predictability, controllability and constructs laws and rules of human behaviour, non-positivism essentially emphasizes understanding and interpretation of phenomena and making meaning out of this process.
Question : Examine the problems of maintaining objectivity and value neutrality in Social Science research.
(2015)
Answer : Arguments over the degree to which objectivity is possible in sociology are too often couched in terms and ideas already rendered obsolete by the changing consensus as to the nature of knowledge forced upon us by recent developments in biology and physics. This has necessitated the discarding of yesterday’s “truths” (and therefore yesterday’s concept of objectivity), as changing paradigms give new meaning to observed events, and as awareness grows of the feedback effect of researchers and their theories upon the very reality which they attempt to measure.
On one hand, it is the duty of sociologists to remain value neutral - be impartial and overcome their biases as they conduct their research; and display objectivity so that the claims, methods and results are not, or should not be influenced by particular perspectives, value commitments, community bias or personal interests. On the other hand, attempts to portray a completely rational, value-neutral model of scientific knowledge, which would have excluded all subjective factors, appears impossible.
The history of positivism supports this. Logical positivists recognized that science is indispensably influenced by social factors. It leads to the idea that science is not value free.
At the same time, the claim that values are inevitably present in the science has a particular relevance to the problem of the objectivity of scientists, because objectivity remains among one of the key principles of science.
A more detailed analysis of the values shows that quite neutral, value-free science does not exist, because truth itself is value, so scientists give preference to procedures that lead to the truth, and positively evaluate such procedures. Classical science, declaring independence from values, nevertheless involved cognitive values of prediction, control and domination over nature. There are two aspects in the problem of scientific objectivity.
One is internal to the society and concerns the capability to achieve an objective description of the subject.Another is external – society is a social institution, and hence the work of the sociologists is influenced by the society in which they live.
Some researchers emphasize that even scientific knowledge is strongly dependent on the social context, while others think that purely cognitive rather than social factors play a major role in choice between theories.
But it is clear that the general attitude to the presence of values in scientific knowledge has changed from the elimination of values and claims about the value neutrality to the need for reflection on values.
Question : Is Sociology a Science? Give reasons for your answer.
(2015)
Answer : Sociology is a science. Social sciences, like natural and biological sciences, use a vigorous methodology. This means that a social scientist clearly states the problems he or she is interested in and clearly spells out how he or she arrives at their conclusions. Generally, social scientists ground the procedure in a body of existing literature.
This is precisely how other sciences function. Study of society by their very nature cannot be exact like natural and physical sciences. The scientific character of a discipline is best known by its methodology. Sociology conducts many experiments indirectly and employs scientific methods such as scales of socio meter, schedules, questionnaire, interview and case history etc. Comparative method is one of the important methods in scientific investigation.
Sociologists use comparisons between groups, communities and societies. Certain generalizations like incest taboo are possible in sociology as in natural sciences. Social surveys and careful studies confirming ill social values are based on careful observation and analysis of social facts.
For example, the statement that dowry is a social evil is a scientific judgment. Sociology is a science which attempts at interpretative understanding of social action in order to arrive at a causal explanation of its causes and effects.
Social scientists have discovered many significant relationships that are sufficiently dependable to add greatly to our understanding of social behavior and to serve as useful guides in dealing with some social problems. Sociology is thus as much a social science like psychology, economics, political science and other social sciences concerning man.
Question : How is objectivity different from value neutrality? Discuss with reference to Weber’s views on methodology.
(2014)
Answer : Weber argued that the method of science, whether its subject matter be things or men, always proceeds by abstraction and generalization. Against the positivists, he took the stand that man, in contrast to things, could be understood not only in external manifestations, that is, in behavior, but also in the underlying motivations. Weber emphasized the value-bound problem choices of the investigator and the value-neutral methods ofsocial research.
According to Weber, differences between the natural sciences and the social sciences arise from differences in the cognitive intentions of the investigator, not from the alleged inapplicability of scientific and generalizing methods to the subject matter of human action.
What distinguishes the natural and social sciences is not an inherent difference in methods of investigation, but rather the differing interests and aims of the scientist. Both types of science involve abstraction.
What particular problem attracts a scholar, and what level of explanation is sought, depends, Weber argues, on the values and interests of the investigator.
The choice of problems is always “value relevant.” “There is no absolutely ‘objective’ scientific analysis of culture or ... of ‘social phenomena’ independent of special and ‘one-sided’ viewpoints according to which-- expressly or tacitly, consciously or unconsciously--they are selected, analyzed and organized for expository purposes.” What is considered “worthy to be known” depends upon the perspective of the inquiringscholar.
In his essay, “‘Objectivity’ in Social Science and Social Policy” in The Methodology of The Social Sciences. The central thrust of the essay is to attempt to spell out the ways that objectivity and truth relate to partisanship and values within the course of social science research and teaching.
Weber draws a sharp distinction between what can be known and demonstrated (empirical facts and causal relationships) and what can be internally tested for consistency but not demonstrated (fundamental value commitments). The theory of ideal types is an important contribution to the specification of the nature of concepts in the human and historical sciences.
Value neutrality, refers to the normative injunction that men of science should be governed by the ethos of science in their role as scientists, but emphatically not in their role as citizens.
Sociology being concerned with problem of understanding, Weber introduces Verstehen method into the fold of sociology. He divides Verstehen method in two types
Weber is the first scholar to conceptualize that sociology is not a prescriptive discipline rather it is a descriptive and interpretative discipline.
A sociologist necessarily pursues a vocation he should not be guiding either social rebellion nor should operate as the high-priest of the society. Rather the concern of the sociologist is to conduct and guide research in order to study the essence of the reality in a value-neutral and rational manner.
Question : In what way ‘interpretative’ method is different from ‘positivist’ approach in the study of social phenomena?
(2014)
Answer : The usual juxtaposition of qualitative research against quantitative research makes it easy to miss the fact that qualitative research itself encompasses at least two traditions: positivist and interpretive approach. Positivist work seeks to identify qualitative data with prepositions that can be tested or identified in other cases, while interpretive work seeks to combine those data into systems of belief whose manifestation are specific to a case.
The differences in interpretive analysis and positivist qualitative work thus are differences in the questions one asks of the data and the types of conclusions one wishes to draw. Both forms of qualitative work look for details about preferences, motivations and actions that are not easily made numeric.
In the end both are committed to general principles or relationships, positivist work does so by identifying general patterns, while interpretive approach work does so by showing how the general pattern looks in practice.
Positivist work can identify the existence of causal relationships that are present in data, with some degree of probability. What it cannot do is to explain how the mechanism implied by a particular causal relationship works. Interpretive work, by contrast, can produce detailed examinations of causal mechanisms in the specific case, explaining how particular variables interact. Without positivist work, however, one does not know how widespread the existence of similar casesmight be.
Thus, Sociologist today, having a firm grounding in sociology requires a deep understanding of positivist and interpretive from a historical and practical perspective, as well as an understanding of their differences. Sociologists who adhere too tightly to positivist theories may find that their own unique social perspectives and value systems have a significant bearing on theirclaims, even when backed up by facts and scientific observation.
Interpretive sociologists seek to correct this conflict of interest by understanding the subjective nature of human social behavior and take into account the viewpoints of others when considering various sociological facts and observations.
Question : Using Mead’s theory of symbolic interactionism, discuss the stages in the formation of gender identity.
(2014)
Answer : Femininity and masculinity or one’s gender identity refers to the degree to which persons see themselves as masculine or feminine given what it means to be a man or woman in society. Femininity and masculinity are rooted in the social (one’s gender) rather than the biological (one’s sex).
It is important to distinguish gender identity, from other gender-related concepts such as gender roles which are shared expectations of behavior given one’s gender.
Although society emerges from social process, organized society exists before the appearance of all new members. Thus, the basic premise of the perspective can be rewritten: Society shapes self shapes social interaction.Symbolic Interactionists argue that gender inequality persists because of the way we define men and women and their appropriate roles in society. Language helps perpetuate inequality.
Feminists argue that women are disadvantaged because society is patriarchal From a sociological perspective, gender identity involves all the meanings that are applied to oneself on the basis of one’s gender identification. In turn, these self-meanings are a source of motivation for gender-related behavior.
For Mead, humans’ distinctive characteristic is their development of “minds” and “selves” in the course of evolution: Humans have the capacity to resolve blocks to ongoing activity by internally manipulating symbols to review and choose among potential solutions. They also have the capacity to respond reflexively to themselves, treating themselves as objects akin to any object in their experience; indeed, reflexivity defines self.
Question : Critically examine positivistic approach in sociological studies.
(2013)
Answer : Positivistic approach refers to the application of scientific approach in sociology. Auguste Comte was the first sociologist to use positive approach in sociology. He believed in the unity of scientific methods and thought that sociology will also follow it. He believed that social reality resembles physical and natural reality from outside and, therefore, patterns can be discovered and theories can be developed. Comte developed the positivistic approach in response to the ideas of enlightenment.
The thinkers of enlightenment portrayed ideal state of things. In this way they were neglecting the reality. Thus, Comte wanted to study the sociology in the manner of natural sciences. Later the study of suicide by Durkheim set the positivist tradition in sociology.
But, positivism has an inherent shortcoming that it neglects the motives and meanings in any social act. Neo-Kantians believed that social reality is characterized by the presence of geist and this consciousness is manifested in terms of meanings and motives. Based on that action choice follows and social reality is created.
They believed that as different actors interpret the same situation in different ways, they give different meanings. So, it becomes difficult to pattern them and a sociological theory can’t be fruitful. Later on, Weber carried this forward by his concept of Verstehen.
Thus, positivism led the foundation of sociology and was the dominant theme in the initial phase but today we need different perspectives to understand the social reality in its totality.
Question : Critically examine the functionalist tradition in Sociology.
(2013)
Answer : Functionalist tradition in sociology was started by Durkheim, popularized by Parsons and then improvised by Merton. Functionalists bring in the biological analogy to understand the society. Functionalists assume that society is an integrated whole made up of integrated parts. These parts work in tandem for the benefit of society. They believe that every society has some basic needs and which must be fulfilled for its survival.
They believe that a certain degree of order and stability is necessary for the operation of the social system. Therefore, they look at every phenomenon as to how it is integrated with other parts of society, how far it meets the basic needs and how it helps to maintain the order on the society.
Durkheim’s theory of religion is a good example of functionalist explanation. In his explanation Durkheim showed how religion increases the solidarity among its members and regulates the conduct of its members. Parsons’ explanation of stratification is another example of functionalist tradition. In this, he argues that every society has some value consensus and those who strengthen it are placed higher on the stratification level than those who don’t conform to societal values. But, functionalist tradition has been criticized for neglecting the conflict and accounting for change.
They tend to focus more on maintaining the stability of society and thus justify the status quo. These, criticisms were answered by Merton and in this way he accommodated conflict in the fold of functionalism. He introduced the concept of dysfunctions. He argued that the functional aspect of any phenomenon should be looked at the level of individual, group and society. If by overall analysis, we find that the phenomenon is dysfunctional or having negative consequences for society then we must acknowledge that there is conflict. Once we do that, we must look for functional alternatives. Thus, by replacing the dysfunctional part by another functional part, functionalists acknowledge and gave a way to solve the conflicts in the society.
Question : Evaluate how do civil society and democracy mutually reinforce each other.
(2013)
Answer : Civil society is seen as a social sphere separate from both the state and the market. The increasingly accepted understanding of the term civil society organizations is that of non-state, not-for-profit, voluntary organizations formed by people in that social sphere. This term is used to describe a wide range of organizations, networks, associations, groups and movements that are independent from government and that sometimes come together to advance their common interests through collective action.
Democracy at present is the best form of governance. Through its institutions and ideals it provides a platform for discussion and debates. Conflicts can be resolved in a peaceful manner. There is emphasis on equality, liberty, fraternity and respect for diversity.
Taking a positive note of the civil society as promoter of democratic form of governance, Scholte identifies six areas where civil society could advance democracy.
Democracy also reinforces civil society by cracking on backward-looking institutions such as Khap panchayats.
In India, the traditional order characterized by caste system and gender inequalities is inherently against the ideals of democracy. So, democracy through its institutions punish the activities which goes against its spirit and thus democratize it.
Question : Fact, Value and Objectivity.
(2012)
Answer : Under sociology, scientific study of social incident is being done and this study is based on facts. In this way that incident which occurred in real form and which can be proved is said to be facts. It may be real or abstract or both, and its empirical testing is possible. In sociology, for making theory, facts are the necessary raw material.
Values are those cultural or personal ideals by which any incident or thing is treated good or bad, or behaviors are directed accordingly. For example-justice, equality, freedom etc. In this way, values are cultural or individual ideals of any society which work as director for conventional behavior of peoples.
Editing and analysis of facts by neutral and unbiased examination is objectivity. In other word, analysis of facts in the actual form without being influenced by their own emotion, thoughts, beliefs, wrong or right related judgment, and expectation, is objectivity. Objective studies of social incidents are necessary to establish sociology as a pure science. As is clear from the meaning of objectivity, it is a base to achieve real knowledge.
In this way, facts of sociology provide raw material for the study of social incident. Before this research, hypothesis is based on these facts. After real examination, testing and observation of these facts, theories are made. In the form of science, sociology is treated as value free. Meaning of value free science is that sociology should study social behavior empirically by keeping distance from question of social value. We can empirically examine facts but not value. Facts and values are two separate things so analysis of both should be done separately and scientific research should be value free. On other side, without objectivity scientific researches are not only worthless but also aimless. Meaningfulness of scientific research is inherent in this matter that we can be familiar with reality of facts and incidents. In this way fact, values and objectivity are necessary conditions for sociological scientific study method.Question : How did the French revolution and Industrial revolution play an important role in the emergence of Sociology?
(2012)
Answer : In the form of separate science sociology emerged in 19th century. During this time, Europe was passing through fast changes due to French and Industrial revolution.
But before French and Industrial revolution, in between 14th to 19th century was the era of commercial and scientific revolution i.e. renaissance had also prepared background of sociology. It is well known that scientific revolution emerged in era of renaissance which created a new angle about the study of nature and man because natural things became subject of examination and testing. This initiated an era of explanation and criticism in the field of science.
Same time in 1789, French revolution had become turning point in the history of human conflict giving rise to concepts of liberty, equality and fraternity. This revolution ended feudal system and initiated a new social system. Changes from monarchy into democratic political system and dominance of middle class in the field of politics brought about major changes. This revolution brought changes not only in France but in whole of Europe.
At the same time, development of industrial revolution had started in Britain also. This revolution, firstly brought changes in economic and social life of English people, then in other big European countries. Due to development of science and technology, instruments and apparatus were invented which developed factory system. In these large factories, huge production was started.
Due to these changes, a capitalist system was established from the feudal system of production.
A new class of capitalist and industrialist emerged which gave fastness to this industrial system. Due to changes in economic aspect of society many social changes had come. Population has increased because of increase in production in a industrial society. This has speeded the process of urbanization. Tech-nology and factory system causes the migration of people from rural to urban. So, industrial revolution generated a new social structure and two new classes in the form of capitalist and labour emerged.
The new Europe which emerged as a result of French and industrial revolution challenged every aspect of old Europe. This resulted into reorganization of new classes. Religion was facing challenges and its importance was reduced. Many fundamental changes occurred in family relation.
Women’s position had changed. Ultimately monarchy ended and democracy was established. Every aspect of society - religion, community, authority, property etc. was defined from new angle.
Increasing industrialization, urbanization caused new problems like poverty, hunger, prostitution, crime, alienation and social and family disorganization among labour.
Above all, the incidents motivated intellectuals to think on this new situation and prepared the background for emergence of sociology.
Question : Fact and Value.
(2011)
Answer : According to Goode and Hatt, ‘fact’ is an empirically verifiable observation and are those situations or circumstances concerning which there does not seem to be valid room or disagreement. A ‘fact’ also refers to something actually happened. Example:- It is a fact that British left India in August 15, 1947. It can be subjected to empirical scrutiny and its existence cannot be denied. Thus a ‘fact’ is an objective reality.
On the other hand value constitute a large share of social science data. For example, the study of socialisation is nothing but the study of the gradual acquisition of values by child and the comparative historical surveys measure changes in values within a cultural system. The central position of value judgements in social sciences lies in the fact that value judgements are merely formalised expressions of sentiments and emotions derived from culture and impelling men to action.
Thus, a value is a preference, positive or negative. Values cannot be treated as facts because they are related to the ‘ought’ and ‘nought’ of the things. Values are also not absolute as it could vary from people to people. Values are also relational as they expose relationship between the speaker and the objects of which he is speaking. Values are all about right and wrong not true or false.
Values enter the cultural framework within which all socio-political analysis takes place and this cultural framework is a necessary condition for social analysis. Values also supplement facts and guide behaviour.
Question : Sociology as a science of society
(2007)
Answer : Sociology as a science of society has been propounded and discussed by positivistic school of thought.
It starts with the beginning of the study of Sociology itself, and more precisely by Auguste Comte. Comte’s chief work “Positive Philosophy” published in six volumes during 1830-1842 paved the way for establishing sociology as a science of society. He formulated three stages through which human knowledge develops viz. the theological, the metaphysical and the positive or empirical. Comte maintained that only when this last stage has been reached, is real science possible.
In the positive stage, objective observation is substituted for speculation and there is a concentration upon the discovery of casual relationships rather than first causes.Comte said sociology would use empirical methods to discover basic laws of society which would benefit mankind by playing a major part in the improvement of the human condition. Social phenomena, like physical phenomena, can be studied objectively by employing the positive method.
In the first stage, the theological, everything is explained and understood through the supernatural. The family is the proto-typical social unit and political dominance is held by priests and military men. In the second stage, the metaphysical, abstract forces are assumed to be the source of explanation and understanding. The state replaces the family as a prototypical social unit and as in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, political dominance is held by churchmen and lawyers.
In the third and highest stage, the mind has given up the vain search after absolute notions, the origin and destination of the universe, the causes of phenomena and applies itself of the study of their laws.
In this scientific phase, the laws of the universe are studied through observation, experimentation and comparison. The whole human race replaces the state as the operative social unit and the political dominance held by industrial administrators and scientific moral guides.
Question : Sociology as a science
(2002)
Answer : Science is a body of systematised knowledge which is based on the sensory observation and empirical data. The chief characteristic of science are: (i) The possibility of concise, consistent and concrete formulation (ii) Capacity to form generalistaion and make predictions and (iii) The possibility of verification of data. The various ways used in scientific method are observation, recording, classification, hypothesis, verification and prediction.
The early sociologists conceived Sociology as a positive science. For example, influenced by biology, August comte viewed society as an organism like entity; a unified whole made up of the interconnected parts. He advocated the method of positive science to be used for the study of social phenomena. Similarly, Spencer, another 19th century sociologist had a positivistic conception of Sociology.
Even Durkheim regarded Sociology as a positive science. According to him, social facts constitute Sociology. He defined social fact in such a way that they were amenable to sensory observation and exploratory generalisation above them could be made by using positive science method. Subsequenly Radcliffe Brown, Malinowski and Parsons continue to view sociology as a positive science and so did most of the Chicago school sociologists. Robert Bierstedt has, in his book "The Social Order" mentioned characteristic feature of nature of Sociology, which are : (i) Sociology is a social science not a natural science (ii) Sociology is a categorical or positive or not a normative science (iii) Sociology is pure or theoretical science and not an applied science (iv) Sociology is an abstract science not a concrete science (v) Sociology is a generalising not a particularising science. (vi) Sociology is both a rational and empirical science.
Question : Sociology and Social Anthropology
(2000)
Answer : One of the important differences between Sociology and Social Anthropology is its subject matter. Sociology studies the interaction of individual and group, social institution of norms and values, culture etc. of the present society whereas Anthropology grew and built its knowledge from Archaeology, Physical Anthropology, Cultural History, Linguistics and study of life of the primitives man. Sociology grew out of the Philosophy of history, Political thought and social surveys. On the other hand, Social Anthropology has its origin in Physical Anthropology and ultimately in Biology. A social anthropologist generally lives in the community that they study in order to observe and record what they see. Their analysis is essentially qualitative and clinical. On the other hand, sociologists often rely on statistics and questionnaires and their analysis is often formal and quantitative. In spite of these major differences there are similarities between these two disciplines. Sociology depends very much on the material supplied by Anthropology. Sociology has borrowed cultural area, cultural traits, inter dependent traits, cultural lag and other conception from Social Anthropology on whose basis “Cultural Sociology” has developed. According to Hoebel, “Sociology and Social Anthropology are, in their broadest sense, one and the same”. A.L. Kroeber has called Sociology and Anthropology as twin sisters. Evan Pritchard consider Social Anthropology to be a branch of sociology. Thus, there are similarities, differences and mutual dependence between these two disciplines.
Question : A good Hypothesis.
(1997)
Answer : A hypothesis, like a theory, is an idea. It is, however more specific than a theory, more concrete and more easily tested. It is hypothesis derived from the theory that is actually tested in scientific research. With the formulation of hypothesis, we give some sort of possible explanation about the fact. A good hypothesis consists of some characteristics. At first the problem is properly defined and a sound perception is made about the nature. Secondly, the previously formulated theories and various existing data concerning it are properly interpreted which helps in getting more concrete information about the problem of studies. Thirdly, if required, social surveys through questionnaire and scheduele is conducted to gather the more objective knowledge about it. Fourthly, interviews are also conducted for know-how about the issues in social science. Interviews consist of two types-direct and indirect. Fifthly the participant and non-participant observation is made. In the preparation of hypothesis, in spite of getting all the relevant information, balance of judgement, objective evaluation of the situation, and reasonable approach are of worth importance. At the final stage conclusion is reached. This is all about hypothesis in social science.
Question : Is it possible to study social phenomena scientifically? Give a critical answer.
(1997)
Answer : To make a critical interpretation of whether a social phenomena is scientifically studied or not, it seems reasonable to know the nature and characteristics of both the social phenomena and the science. According to L.F. Ward"Sociology is a science of society or social phenomena". The sum and substance of the various other definitions of Sociology is that it is the study of social relationship, social interaction and activities. It is the needs which compel a man to interact and take action to fulfil it. Whenever he tries to do so, he establishes a relationship with the other man, organisation, institution etc. For example, to fulfil his biological and emotional needs, the institution of marriage and family were created by man, the former validate the sex drive and gives them an organised and settled way of living, so does the latter also. Except these, as man has vivid needs, such as social, economic, political, religious, educational etc. he has created concerned institutions, and associations to fulfill his needs and dreams. Thus the development and growth of the society is embedded in the interaction process establishing relationship. The interaction process involves several processes which are cooperation, conflict, competion, assimilation, accommodation etc. During these process, the associative and disassaciative forces also operate. As has been remarked by MacIver & page, society consists of both the likeness and differences. Therefore, its various institutional arrangements and process consists of these prominent two features. Both, cooperation and conflict, likness and differences are essential for the development of society.
Secondly, the norms and values of the society are very important in deciding the customs, folkways, mores and legislation. The modern codified laws have its origin in the deep rooted customs and values of the society. It is the social values which determine the institutional arrangement of the society.
All these institutional arrgagements, systems and orders, and the mechanism of control and monitoring as it is existing is called social phenomena. The main task of the sociologists is to make studies of these existing social phenomena. It is not their concern to suggest "What ought to be"but as it is.
Now the question is whether the scientific study of the social phenomena, which has been characterized above is possible or not. To know the answer, it is essential to be aware of the nature and characteristic of science.
In a simple explanation of the science, it can be said that it is not a concept in itself, but a objective way of finding the facts. The conclusion reached by scientist after going through several processes such as experiementation, observation etc. may be verified again and again if the similar circumstances prevail. On the basis of the experimental studies and observation, they propound universal theory or law. Thus the Newton's law of motion, the Boyle’s and Charle's law can be still verified and tested. This is the essence of scientific method.
All the founding fathers of the Sociology such as August Comte (1798-1857) Emile Durkheim (1858-1917), Max weber (1861-1920) and Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) assume that Sociology is the science of society or social phenomena: It make scientific analysis of the social phenomena by applying scientific principle or method.
August Comte who laid the foundation of Sociology believed that the society of human being must be studied in the same scientific manner as the world of nature. He said that the natural science methods can be applied to the study of society. His ideas of divison of human society or thought into the three distinct categories: theological, metaphysical and positive, and the hierarchy of sciences have really given us a positive clue to apply scientific method in the study of social phenomena. According to Comte, science also passes through three stages of thought chronologically and Sociology is the most distinct of all science in the hierarchy. He has applied the static and dynamic concept of the biology in the study of society.
Similarly, Herbert Spencer has described the scientific way to study social phenomena. He has compared social phenomena with the organism. Just as various parts of human beings function for the well being of the men as a whole in the same way different institutional set up and process work for keeping society alive. His evolutionary ideas are equally applicable to both the natural and social sciences.
Thirdly, Durkheitn's social fact, solidarity, division of labour etc. have been scientifically descrbed. He has described social fact as the existing reality of the society. Therefore, the reality may be scientifically proved and theory may be propounded regarding it.
Max weber has also attempted to give a causal explanation and scientific approach to his ideal type, and bureaucratic hierarchy.
On the basis of the above scientific explanation given to the study of social phenomena, it can be said that Sociology applies scientific methods to explain the social phenomena. But it is still unclear as to what level or the degree of objectivity and exactness are achieved by the sociologist. Some of the social phenomena such as demography and where statistics is concerned may be explained in a more objective way whereas the value judgement is relatively poor to be explained objectively. Thus, the controlled experimental studies of social values is not possible. Secondly, there is the universalisation problem of sociological principle. The nature and characteristic of social phenomena vary in different social groups. The norms and values of the agricultural, tribal, and industrial society are different at the same time. Thus, universal law cannot be propounded. It is considered as the characteristic feature of the science.
The sociological methods like participant observation, interview, quesnonnaire, sampling, social survey etc. give us a scientic explanation of the social phenomena. But like natural science it cannot be equally generalised and proved. Since the various social phenomena gradually change, and changing process is difficult to study objectively, a sociologist’s task is to ensure it in changing circumstances.
Thus we neither say, that we can study social phenomena in a more scientific way nor the sociological principle is absolutely unscientific, rather it makes scientific study of social phenomena.
Question : Value-free Sociology.
(1996)
Answer : By the term "value-free" Sociology, we mean that Sociology is a science which should keep itself away from the question of social values and study social behaviour in its empirical senses. Thus, it is not the concern of the sociologist to point out the goodness and badness of social values and to determine which values are ultimately good. They may only make an empirical studies of the existing institutions. The question of 'What ought to be' is beyond the scope of sociology. The values and social fact are two different things. The former cannot be studied empirically while the latter can. The scientific inquiry should be value free.
It was German sociologist, Max Weber (1869-1920) who first used the concept 'ethical neutrality' or 'value-free' Sociology. According to him, only a value-free approach could facilitate scientific development. He tried to fence off social sciences from various irrational influences. The value bias of scholar should not influence his analysis of social phenomena. He assumes that the nature of science is such that it cannot make a rationally justified choice between value system. He further pointed out that the social scientists as an objective investigator must remain neutral about value system. It is not the task of social scientist "to offer binding norms and ideals or provide recipes for practice". Thus, to sum up, the value free Sociology implies the transfer of natural science methods to Sociology to make it more scientific.
