Social & Cultural Developments

Answer : Of the several evils cording the Indian society in the nineteenth century, the most growing with the stunting the women. For countless centwise, women in India had been subordinated to men and severally opposed. The various religions practiced in India as well as the personal laws based on them cognized women to a status inferior to that of men. The condition of upper class women was in this regard worse than that of peasant women. The traditional view often praised the role of women as wives and mothers but as individuals they were assigned a very lowly social position.

They were supposed to have no personality of their own apart from ties to their husbands. They could not find any other expression to their in boon talents or desires except as housewives. In fact, they were seen as adjusts to men. A women could only marry only once, a man was permitted have more than one wife. Among Muslims, too this custom of polygamy practiced. In large parts of the country, woman had to have behind the purdah.

The custom of early marriage prevailed, and even children of eight or nine were married. Widow could not remarry and had to reap as ascetic and restricted life. In many parts of the country, the horrifying custom of sati was or self-immolation of widows prevailed. Hindu women had no right to inherit property, not did they enjoy the right to geminate an undesirable marriage.

Muslim women could inherit property but only half as much as a man could, and in matter of divorce even theoretically there was no igniting between husband and wife. In facts, Muslim women headed divorce.

The social positions of Hindu and Muslim women as well as their values were similar. Moreover in both the cases they were economically and socially totally dependent on man. Lastly, the benefit of education was derived to most of them. In addition, women were taught to accept their subjugation and even to welcome it as a badge of honour.

It is true that occasionally woman of the personality of Razia, Chandbibi or Ahalyabai arose in India, but they were exceptions to the general pattern and do not in any way change the picture.

Moved by the humanitarian and egalitarian impulses of the 19^th century, the social reforms started powerful movement to improve the position of women. Notable in this regard was role of All India Women’s Conference as well as the efforts of Gandhiji and
others.

Answer : Among the string of the socio-religious reformers, the name of Swami Vivekanand stands tallest. He besides raising the status of Indian culture in international arena also boosted the self assurance and self confidence of Indians and contributed powerful to the emergence of nationalism in India. His teachings played an important role in awakening the Indian masses from slumber.

Foremost Vivekananda was a humanist. He was deeply pained by the plight of majority of Indian masses. He while touring the country found the masses steeped in hunger. Also, the masses were illiterate and hence ignorant. This led to their cultural isolation.

Peeved by this state of affairs, Swami Vivekananda felt that it was the duty of each Indian to take care of his fellow Indian. He especially exhorted the educated Indian middle class to leave and come out of their attitude of isolationism and take upon the duty of removing the vicious cycle of poverty and illiteracy in which the Indian masses were entrapped.

He felt that every educated Indian who ignored the poverty and hunger of the masses of this land as traitor. This was because, it was out the money generated by the toiling masses that they have been educated. Vivekananda’s view on sad plight of the masses was in sync with the teachings of Rama Krishna Paramahansa according to which service to man is service to god.

Vivekananda following the teaching of his master exhorted the Indians to serve their fellow countrymen.

Vivekananda’s views on the plight of Indian masses continued in subsequent times moderates programme and in the constructive work of Mahatma Gandhi.

Answer : Immense intellectual and cultural stirrings characterized the 19^th century India. The impact of the western empire and consciousness of defeat by a foreign power gave birth to a new awakening. There was awareness that a vast country like India had been colonized by foreigners because of internal weakness of Indian social structure and culture. Thoughtful Indians began to look for the strengths and the weaknesses of their society and means of removing the weaknesses. This national democratic awakening of the 19^th century could not be confined to political sphere and found manifestation in religious realm also. There were efforts to reform and revitalize the Indian religious system. Several efforts were made for religious reform. Raja Rammohan Ray started efforts to aid the popular religion of superstitions, which was exploited by ignorant and corrupt priests.

He carried on persistent struggle against the polytheism, worship of idols, and the prevalence of meaningless religious rituals. He condemned the priestly class for encouraging there practices. He held that all the principal ancient texts of the Hindus preached monotheism or worship of one god. He published Bengali translation of Vedas and fire of Upanishads to prove his point.

Swami Dayanand Saraswati believed that selfish and ignorant priests had perverted Hindu religion with the aid of the Puranas which he said were full of lies. For his own inspiration, Swami Dayanand turned to the Vedas which he regarded as infallible being the inspired word of God, and as the fountain-head of all knowledge. His approach to the Vedas however had a nationalist aspect because the Vedas, though revealed had to be rationally interpreted by himself and others, who were human beings. Thus, individual reason was the deciding factor.

Similarly, among the Muslims, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan carried the banner of religions reform. He was tremendously impressed by modern scientific thought and worked all his life to reconcile it with Islam. He declared Quran above to be the authorative work of Islam and held all other Islamic writings to be secondary. Even the Quran he interpreted was in the light of contemporary rationalism and science. He held any interpretation of Quran as conflicting with human reason to be a misinterpretation.

The awakening found expansion also in Gurudwara reform movement among Sikhs and in the Temple Entry movement in the twenties.