Nyaya Vaishesika

Answer : Anyathakhyativada is one of the theory of error in Indian philosophy. Nyaya-Vaishesika supports this theory. It maintains that in the error of a rope to be snake both rope and snake are true. But the existence of snake is not there but somewhere else. In Illusion or error we see snake in the rope while the former exists at a different place. Due to some reason we confuse rope with snake. And the reason is ....

Answer : Knowledge is cognition that has been produced in the right way. Cognitions are moments of consciousness, not species of belief, but we may say that cognitions form beliefs in forming dispositions and that veridical cognitions form true beliefs. A knowledge episode—to speak in the Indian manner—is a cognition generated in the right fashion. Whether this be because it is (as say the realists, Mimamsa, Nyaya, Vaisesika) that it has the right origins in fact, or ....

Answer : According to Naiyayikas, the perception of non-existence (abhava) is a unitary perception of one whole, just as any perception of positive existence is. Both the knowledge of the ground (bhutal) as well as the knowledge of the non-existence (abhava) of the table, for example, arises there by the same kind of action of the visual organ. Therefore there is no reason why the knowledge of the ground should be said to be due to perception, ....

Answer : The Nyaya System of Indian philosophy is an orthodox system which was founded by the sage Gautama or Aksapada. The word ‘Nyaya’ means ‘argumentation.’ Nyaya System is also known as the science of reasoning, Pramânasâstra or the science logic and epistemology, or the science of causes, vadavidya or the science of debate, and anviksiki or the science of critical study.

The Nyaya system defines knowledge as ‘manifestation of objects’ (arthaprakasobuddhi). Knowledge, in this system, is compared ....

Answer : A Pramana is defined as the one that does not exceed the object in any manner i.e., which sees the object exactly as it is. A pramana therefore, is the proof for the categorical existence or non-existence of a particular object as it appears. There are two types of pramanas.

1. A Kevala Pramana is defined as the knowledge that does not exceed the object in any manner i.e., which sees the object exactly as it ....

Answer : Padartha is also referred to a particular object belonging to a type of entity. These categories are Dravya, guna, karma, Samanya, samavaya, vishesha and Abhava.

The first three types are defined as artha or something which can perceived and have real objective existence. The last three are defined as budhyapeksam or product of intellectual discrimination and they are logical.

Padhartha (Sanskrit) is used as a category or predicament, the Vaiseshika school and the Vedantins enumerating seven types ....

Answer : Vyapti is a universal statement that expresses the “niyata sahacharya” or relation of constant concomitance between hetu or the middle term and sadhya or the major term and implies the “sahacara” i.e. the knowledge of invariable relation of causality or coexistence between sadhya and hetu in all the three instances of time, which is possible when the “anupadhik sambandha” i.e. relation of unconditionality between the two is known. It is defined as the unconditional and ....

Answer : According to Vaisheshika, each soul is all-pervasive; while according to Nyaya, each soul is the size of a minute particle. Nyaya asserts that the soul that has the relationship of contingent conjunction or disjunction with a physical mind particle is the size of a particle; nevertheless,Nyaya accepts that, in general, each soul is all-pervasive.

Nyaya-Vaiseshika furthermore undertakes an explanation of man’s nature: there is a soul in man distinct from the body, forhe possesses attributes different ....

Answer : Pramanyavada in Indian philosophy tries to find out the source of validity of knowledge. Whether the validity comes along with knowledge i.e. it is intrinsic or validity comes from different process i.e. extrinsic.

Mimamsa believes that validity of knowledge is intrinsic and invalidity comes later i.e. extrinsic. According to Nyayiks, both validity and invalidity are extrinsic.

Views of Mimamsa is known as Svatahpra-nanyavada. Its principles are

1. The validity of knowledge is present in the material that creates ....

Answer : The Nyaya system of Indian Philosophy gives us nine arguments to prove the existence of God, namely KARYAT, AYOJANAT, DHRTYADEH,PADAT, PRATYAYATAH, SRUTI, VAKYAT, SANKHYAVISHESAT, ADRSTA.

But all these proofs are ultmately unavailing, as they all have some inadequacy, some of the inadequacy are:

The sayings based on Vedas have internal contradictions. On one side it is said that Vedas are the creation of God on the other side due to the mention of God in the Vedas, ....

Answer : The Nyaya system of Indian Philosophy gives us nine arguments to prove the existence of God, namely KARYAT, AYOJANAT, DHRTYADEH,PADAT, PRATYAYATAH, SRUTI, VAKYAT, SANKHYAVISHESAT, ADRSTA.

But all these proofs are ultmately unavailing, as they all have some inadequacy, some of the inadequacy are:

The sayings based on Vedas have internal contradictions. On one side it is said that Vedas are the creation of God on the other side due to the mention of God in the Vedas, ....

Answer : The Vaishesika philosophy is pluralistic realism. A category is called padartha and the entire universe is reduced to six or seven padarthas. Padartha literally means ‘the meaning of a word’. All objects of knowledge or all reals come under padartha. Padartha means an object which can be thought (jneya) and named (abhidheya). The abhava is called an independent reality because it can be conceived (prameya), thought (jneya) and named (abhidheya).

The seventh category is Abhava or ....

Answer : Pramanyavada in Indian philosophy tries to find out the source of validity of knowledge, whether the validity of knowledge comes along with the knowledge i.e. it is intrinsic or validity comes through different process i.e. extrinsic. In this also lies the question whether invalidity is intrinsic or extrinsic.

Mimamsakas believe that validity of knowledge is intrinsic and invalidity comes later i.e. extrinsic. Mimamsakas believe in Svatah Pramanyavada and Paratah Apramanyvada. Whereas Nyayaiks believe in Paratah Pramanyavada ....

Answer : In Nyaya guna is quality. Unlike substance, it cannot exist without independently by itself and possess no quality or action. It inheres in a substance and depends for its existence on the substance and is not a constitutive cause of anything. It is called an independent reality because it can be conceived, thought and named independently of a substance where it inheres. The qualities are therefore called objective entities. They are not necessarily eternal. They ....

Answer : According to Gautama perception is uncontradicted knowledge which arises out of the proximity of object and sense organ, it is distinct and is unrelated to any name. According to this view, perception is that form of knowledge which results form the contact or nearness between the objects and the sense organ and which is apparent and real knowledge. The Nyaya philosophers have recorgnised six kinds of proximity, Sanjog, Samyak Samavaya, Sanyukt Saimaveta Samavaya, Samaveta Samavaya ....

Answer : The methodology of inference involves a combination of induction and deduction by moving from particular to particular via generality. It has five steps, as in the example shown:

There is fire on the hill (called Pratija, required to be proved)

Because there is smoke there (called Hetu, reason)

Wherever there is smoke, there is fire, e.g. in a kitchen (called Udaharana, example of vyapti)

The hill has smoke that is pervaded by fire (called Upanaya, reaffirmation or application)

Therefore there ....

Answer : Vyapti is the basis of anumana. Vyapti refers to the unconditional and permanent relationship between hetu and sadhya. Inference (anumana) is the second means of proof (pramana) and the most valuable contribution that Nyaya has made on this subject. It consists in making an assertion about a thing on the strength of the mark or linga which is associated with it, as when finding smoke rising from a hill we remember that since smoke cannot ....

Answer : Vaisheshika, also Vaisesika is one of the six Hindu schools of philosophy (orthodox Vedic systems) of India. Historically, it has been closely associated with the Hindu school of logic, Nyaya. The Vaisesika is primarily a metaphysics system of thought which classifies all beings into seven categories, and postulates that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to a finite number of atoms. Vaisesika is a system of pluralistic realism, which emphasizes that reality consist ....

Answer : The basic question involved in any theory of causation is: does the effect pre exist in its material cause? Those who answer this question in the negative are called Asatkaryavadivs, while those who answer it in the affirmative are called Satkaryarvadins. According to the former the effect is a new creation, a real beginning. The effect (Karya) does not pre exist (asat) in its material cause. Otherwise, there would be no sense in saying that ....

Answer : Nyaya means argumentation and suggests that the system is predomisnantly intellectual, analytic logical and epistemological. In the Nyaya philosophy valid knowledge is produced by the four valid means of knowledge perception, inference, comparison and testimony. Gautam defines perception as non-erroneous cognition which is produced by the intercourse of the sense organs with the objects, which is not associated with a name and which is well defined. This definition of perception excludes divine and yogic perception ....

Answer : According to Vaishesika substance or dravya is defined as the substratum where actions and qualities inhere and which is the coexistent material cause of the composite things produced from it. Substance signifies the self subsistence, the absolute and independent nature of things. The category of substance at once unfolds the pluralistic realism of this system. Substance is the substratum of qualities and actions. Without substance we cannot have qualities and action for they cannot hang ....

Answer : In Nyaya philosophy perception, inference, comparison or analogy and verbal testimony are the four kinds of valid knowledge. Gautam defines perception as non-erroneous cognition which is produced by the intercourse of the sense organs with the objects, which is not associated with a name and which is well fined. This definition of perception excludes divine and yogic perception which is not generated by the intercourse of the sense organs with the objects. Hence Visvanatha has ....

Answer : Anumana or inference, according to Nyaya is defined as that cognition which presupposes some other cognition. It is mediate and indirect and arises through a mark, the middle term (ling or hetu) which is invariably connected with the major term (Sadhya). It is knowledge (mana) which arises after (any) other knowledge. The presence of the middle term in the minor term is called paksadharmata. The invariable association of the middle term with the major term ....

Answer : Samanya is a class concept, class essence or universal. It is the common character of the things which fall under the same class. The samanya is more like the universal then like the genus. The genus stands for the class and includes the sub classes or species. The samanya stands, not for the class, but for the common characteristic of certain individuals and does not include the sub-classes. It is the universal by the possession ....

Answer : Vyapti or invariable concomitance (Vyapti) is the nerve of inference. The invariable association of middle term with the major term is called Vyapti. The middle term is linga or hetu and the major term is Sadhya. The anumana is defined as that cognition which presupposes some other cognition. It is mediate and indirect and arises through a mark, the middle term which is invariably connected with the major term. It is knowledge which arises after ....

Answer : In Nyaya philosophy the law of causation is subservient to the law of Karma. The Nyaya like the Vaishesika believes in teleological creation. The material causes of this universe are the eternal atoms of earth, water, fire and air and the efficient cause is God. The infinite individual souls are co-eternal with atoms. And God is co-eternal with atoms and souls and is external to both. Nyaya advocates atomism, spiritualism, theism, realism and pluralism. Creation ....

Answer : According to Nyaya theory of causation, a cause is defined as an unconditional and invariable antecedent of an effect and an effect as an unconditional and invariable consequent and the effects are produced by the same cause. Plurality of causes is ruled out. The first essential characteristic of a cause is its antecedence; the fact that it should precede the effect. The second is its invariability; it must invariably precede the effect. The third is ....

Answer : Anumana or internee is defined as that cognition which presupposes some other cognition. It is mediate and indirect and arises through a mark the middle term (linga or hetu) which is invariably connected with the major term (Sadhya). It is knowledge. Invariable concomitance (Vyapti) is the nerve of inference. The presence of the middle term in the minor term is called Paksadharmata. The invariable association of the middle term with the major term is called ....

Answer : The Vaishesika system is regarded as conducive to the study of all system. Its main business is to deal with the categories and to unfold its atomistic pluralism. A category is called padartha and the entire universe is reduced to six or seven padarthas. Padartha literally means the meaning of world or the object signified by a world. All objects of knowledge or all realties come under padartha. Padartha means an object which can be ....

Answer : Knowledge, according to Nyaya philosophy is produced in the soul when it comes into contact with the not soul. It is the adventitious property of the soul which is generated in it by the object. If the generating conditions are sound, knowledge is valid. Gautama defines perception as non-erroneous cognition which is produced by the intercourse of the sense organs with the object, which is not associated with a name and which is well defined. ....

Answer : The Vaishesika system is next to Samkhya in origin and is of greater antiquity than the Nyaya. The word is derived from ‘Vishesa’ which means particularity of distinguishing features or distinction. The vaishesika philosophy therefore, is pluralistic realism which emphasizes that diversity is the soul of the universe. The category of vishesa or particularity deals with at length in this system, and is regarded as the essence of things. The Vaishesika system is regarded as ....

Answer : In Indian logic a fallacy is called hetvabhara. It means that the middle term appears to be a reason but is not a valid reason. All fallacies are materials fallacies. There are five characteristics of a valid middle term. When these are violated we have fallacies. Five kinds of fallacies are recognized:

1. Asiddha or sadhyasama: This is the fallacy of the unproved middle; the middle term must be present in the minor term. If is not ....

Answer : Nyaya defines perception as non enormous cognition which is production by the intercourse of the sense organs with the objects, which is not associated with a name and which is well defined. The Naiyayika maintains two stages in perception. The first is called indeterminate or nirvikalpa and the second, determinate or savikalpa. They are not two different kinds of perception, but only the earlier and the later stages in the same complex process of perception. ....