Regional Development And Planning

Answer : To revitalise the Indian rural economy and society, many schemes and programmes were initiated in post independence era. Out of those, the Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) has been exemplary.

The IRDP aims at providing assets and self-employment opportunities to the rural poor. The assistance under IRDP is given to a target group of rural poor belonging to families below poverty line, in the form of subsidy by government and in the form of term-loan by the financial institutions.

The target group of IRDP consists of small and marginal farmers, agricultural labourers, rural artisans, scheduled castes and tribes and socially and economically backward classes. At least 50% of the families should be from SC/ST and 40% coverage should be of women beneficiaries. It follows household approach rather than individual approach.

The IRDP is implemented through District Rural Development Agencies (DRDAs) and Block Level Agencies. The IRDP was first proposed in the Budget of 1976-77. Some of the important schemes under IRDP are: (i) TRYSEM, (ii) Scheme for rural artisans to enhance quality products, (iii) Development of women and children, (iv) CAPART, (v) Employment assurance scheme etc.Though the performance of IRDP has not been able to meet the expectation, yet it has been proved to be a great programme.

The objectives of Integrated Rural Development Planning are certainly lofty but its actual implementation shows wide spatial variation. In Punjab, Haryana, West UP, Maharashtra, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu it has been farily successful while it has failed dismally in Orissa, North East and Bihar. Overambitious projects and targets, overlapping jurisdiction and multiplication of authorities, poor data base, absence of backward and forward linkages and peoples’ natural protest against change’-are some of the factors responsible for not-so-successful implementation of IRDP.

Increasing awareness level of people, obtaining feedback from the field and more committed planning authorities and effective implementation will go a long way in success of integrated Rural Development Planning.

Answer : The importance of town planning was realised in the post-indpendence period. considering the heavy demand by various activities like industrial, commercial, residential, recreational etc. on urban land, there is need for scientific principles governing the allocation. Besides these functions, the width of roads should be kept in mind considering the future density of traffic.

A Town Planning Authority prepares the land use plan for towns, demarcating different zones for specific landuse. These plans include the provision for adequate street width, open spaces, basic services like water, electricity, school, health etc.

Major Constraints in Town Planning

1. Plan formulation and its implementation: During the period between the formulation of the plan and its implementation, more extension come up which lack basic amenities due to under-developed infrastructure. Slums come upin plots which have remained underdeveloped for some reason.
2. Urban planning being restricted to municipal limit: The suburbs which are under panchayat jurisdiction start developing industries without basic infrastructural support. This leads to haphazard growth of the urban space.
3. Multiplicity of Agencies: If services like water supply, electricity, sewage disposal, telephone etc. have no coordination among them, they may lead to slow development of new industries which keep waiting for long period for all the services to reach them.

Suggestions for Removing Constraints:

1. Considering the economic importance and revenue generating potential of the four metropolitan cities, special attention should be paid towards developing specialised infrastruture in these cities.
2. Medium and small towns should be developed as satellite towns by providing incentives.

The Town and Country Planning Organisation is the apex planning organisation in the country.

Some examples of planned Indian cities include Chandigarh, New Delhi, Bhubaneswar and Gandhinagar.

National Urbanisation Policy

1. Location of Town: Adopted to encourage a dispersed location.
2. Size of Town: Optimum population levels should be encouraged.
3. Growth of Urban Centres: Basic services should be planned keeping in view the probable future trends of urbanisation.
4. Policy on rural-urban migration.
5. Dealing with rapid growth.
6. Policy on peripheral growth.
7. Development of growth centres
8. Adopt new housing policies.
9. Urban land policy.
10. Administrative policy.
11. Policies to check air and water pollution.

These are the things which are adopted in new town planning.

Answer : Regional disparity is a world-wide phenomena. What differentiates the problem of the under - developed countries like India from that of the developed countries is the fact that whereas in the latter all inhabitants have an assured minimum level of subsistence, the concern of lagging regions is just to ‘catch up’.

There is a marked regional disparity in the level of development within the country. India is a diverse country with uneven distribution of almost all resources that are necessary for the development of a region, for example, while eastern Ganga plain receives 150 c.m. rainfall it is just 25 cm in Western Rajasthan, which restricts the practice of agriculture.

Nature and Extent of Regional Disparity: Regional disparity is reflected in all aspects of Indian life. However, measuring regional disparities is a difficult task. Differences in per capita income are often highlighted to bring out disparities in different states. However, aside from the fact that such a study reveals only inter-state differences in the level of income and says nothing about intra-state differences in the levels of income alone is not a sufficient indicator of development.

Differences in industrial growth, disparities in agriculture growth, level of literacy in different states, percentage of workers in manufacturing industries of total workers, total road length, infant-mortality rate etc. can all be considered indicators for purpose of studying imbalances and inequalities in regional development.

Other Indicators of Disparities: urbanisation is a part of development process. Therefore, percentage of urban population is normally high in relatively developed regions. In India more than half (57.1 percent) of total urban population lives in five states of Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh. All India level was 27.78 percent in 2001. In terms of urbanisation even otherwise under-developed states like Orissa, Bihar, Assam, Himachal Pradesh ranked quite low. Per capita domestic consumption of electricity was 681kwh in Punjab followed by Haryana as against all India per capita consumption of 281kwh. In Assam, Bihar, Kerala, West Bengal, Jammu and Kashmir and Uttar Pradesh it was 200 kwh or even less than the nationl average.

Road length per 100 km² of areas is an indicator which adequately reflects development of a very important component of infrastructure. Distribution of roads is not uniform in the country. Density varies from only 10 km in Jammu and Kashmir to 375 km in Kerala with a national average of 75 km.

Infant mortality rate and literacy rate are two very good indicators of physical quality of life. Infant mortality rate shows a tendency to decline with economic and social development.

Poverty in any society is considered as an important indicator of economic backwardness. In India poorareone to be found everywhere but the percentage of population below poverty line is not same in all states.

Suitable Measures to Remove Regional Disparities: Measures to reduce regional disparities can be classed into two groups:

1. Integrated area approach and local planning: One of the important measures for reducing regional disparities in India relates to the preparation of integrated plans for selected areas for the formulation of district plans. Among them, integrated plans for hill areas, drought prone areas, tribal areas and areas with concentration of marginal and small farmers are worth-mentioning.

Hill Area Development Programmes: These programmes were started in hilly areas of Uttranchal, Assam, Darjeeling in W. B. and Nilgiri district in Tamil Nadu. The programmes provided special emphasis on exploiting local resources of the hill areas through the development programmes of horticulture, plantation, agriculture, animal husbandry, poultry, bee-keeping forestry, soil conservation and suitable village
industries.

Tribal Area Development Programmes: The programme has been conceived for areas with 50 percent or more tribal concentration. The areas taken under this programme lie in M.P., Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand and Rajasthan. Most of the grants to this programme are provided from the state plan funds aided with a special allocation from the central sector.

These programmes are framed to benefit the common man. It deals with the special problems of the area such as shifting cultivation, bonded labour, land alienation and programmes related with credit and marketing, forestry and road.

Drought Prone Area Programmes: The main objectives of the programme were to provide employment to the rural poor in drought prone areas with inadequate natural resources and creating productive assets to mitigate the effects of droughts.

The emphasis concentrated on integrated development of the area related to irrigation projects, land development programmes, afforestation, grassland development, rural electrification and programmes of infrastructural development.

Metropolitan Regional Planning: Large urban centres were treated as industrial growth poles. As a result, large-scale movement of labour from rural to urban areas accompanied urban-based large-scale industrialisation. Such influx of migrants created several problems, particularly in the capital and port cities. Urban master plan was prepared to reduce the problems of rapid urbanisation.

2. Spatial Integration in Sectoral Plans: Several programmes, especially designed to promote balanced regional development, were integrated within sectoral programmes during different plans.

Community Development Programme: This programme was launched in the 1st Plan. The country was divided into development blocks. This has been called as multipurpose approach based on the principles of all round development.

Industrial Location and Regional Development: These programmes aimed at decentralised industrialization. These programmes encouraged industrial development in backward regions by providing concessional finance, creation of industrial estates, establishment of public sector industrial estates etc. Undertakings and preferential licensing infrastructural facilities were provided to locate industries in industrial estates.

The estates were located near urban centres but later on they were located in rural areas also. These industrial estates developed rapidly during the sixties but could not fulfil the purpose of balanced development.

Intensive Agricultural Development Programme: this was adopted in the third plan. The essence of this policy was to select a few districts where the prospects of agricultural development were bright. The districts selected had assured water supply by irrigation and in these districts the farmers were provided with full package of services like improved seeds, fertilizers, plant protection and short- term credit.

The outcome of India’s planned development is a mixed bag. On the flip side, rate of increase of income has been lower than the target, agricultural performance has been weaker and its industrial advancement lags far behind. The country could not achieve the objective of ‘growth with equity’. Sustained efforts are still needed to reduce the visible disparities amongst states between rural and urban areas and between males and females.

Answer : Geography is that subject which basically deals with the analysis of areal differentiationand areal organisation. The area here connotes the region. In other words, geography is science of distribution,

organisation and analysis of regional facts. As far as regional development is concerned, it requires the works of planning for the development of an unit of landscape (region). Therefore a region is essential for any planning and geographical knowledge is sine-qua-non for a region. Hence any work of regional planning cannot be fruitful without geographical knowledge. The above statement clearly depicts the importance of geography in the regional planning.

Realizing the importance of geography in regional planning, geographers are involved in the regional planning process in many countries of the world. This is also true with respect to our country. In this context, there are important contributions of Prof ‘Desh Panday’, Prof. L.k. Sen, L.S. Bhatt. V.K. Sundram, Dr. R.P. Mishra. Prof. Munis Raza etc.

Prof. Desh Panday and Prof L.S. Bhatt have done the work of dividing India into planning regions. Dr. R.P. Mishra has presented the modification of Growth Pole Theory of Boudeoville in the Indian context which has been given recognition by planning commission of India.

The process of regional planning involves four fundamental steps:

1. Demarcation of a region
2. Determination of necessities, essentials and priorities of the region
3. Collection and interpretation of information related to the region
4. Presentation of basic information throngh maps and presenting the probeable demands through maps.

The demarcation of region is impossible without geographical knowledge. There exists a strong and complimentry relationship between geography and regional planning as far as the prosses of regional planning is concerned. This relationship can be further highlighted through the studies of approaches of regional planning. Regional planning-India is one of those countries of the world where various approaches related to regional planning have been used and in almost all approaches geographers have played an important role.

1. River Basin Approach: Just after independence of the country, many river valley development projects were started such as DVC, Bhakhra-Nangal, Hirakud, etc. The demarcation in these projects was based on geographical concepts.

2. Metropolitan Planning: In this planning approach,the economic geography such as cropping pattern in the hinterland, suitability of Approach etc are made use of.

For the determination of necessities and priorities, the knowledge of natural resources, technical know how, capital availability etc is essential. The development of modern geography has taken place on the back of data which has increased the utility of geography. This is also known as geographical information system (GIS). It is a computerised information system importing all the relevent information to the planners at one time. GIS has immense utility in regional planning and development.

The data sent by the artificial satellites has further increased the importance of geographical data collection and its interpretation.

Map making is essentially a tool of geography and the quality of map making will be considerably deteriorated if geographical knowledge is not involved.Even presentation of information though maps like transport network, industries, information related to quality of population etc becomes more important and has to be planned according to the natural as well as cultural characteristics of the region.

3. Multilevel Planning: In a vast country like India federal structure is suitable due to difference in physical and cultural geography and for this federal structure multilevel planning becomes important. For the successful implementation of multilevel planning in countries like India, both planning and implementation should be done on the basis of geographical knowledge.

4. Special Area Approach: This approach is also based on geographical condition and is very important for diverse country like India. In India these plans are- Command Area Development Plan, Hill Area Development Program, Tribal Sub Area, Drought Prone Area Development Program, Desert Development Programe etc.

5. Sustainable Development Approach: According to this approach our development will not last if we ignore environmental protection and conservation.

The discipline of geography places great-importance to environmental concerns and hence becomes a necessary tool in regional planning for sustainable development. In India the watershed management, agro-climatic regionalization, crop rotation policy, suitable irrigation techniques such as drip and sprinkler irrigation, etc are employed, which are based on geographical concepts.

Answer : The size of our country is large enough to exhibit considerable variations in physical conditions and resource availability, which, coupled with some historical factors, has resulted into differential levels of socio-economic development in various regions. Moreover, expectations and problems of different regions also differ. Addressing such problems and concerns becomes very important in the federal nature of polity we have.

It is in this respect that regional development policy implemented through the planning process holds much significance. Planning is also an effort towards narrowing the intra and inter-regional disparities. India has adopted the system of Five Year Plan to achive these objectives.

During the first two plans, not much attention was given on regional planning. Instead focus was placed on sectoral development to bring the economy on the path of development. Agriculture and industry were benefitted during this period. The only identifiable regional aspect of this period was that those regions were tried to be developed who had ready availability of resources and where results can be obtained by employing minimum of inputs.

Third Plan: By the beginning of the Third Plan (1960-61 to 65-66), the Indian planners felt that Indian economy had entered the ‘take off stage’. Regional imblances also started showing up at the same time. Therefore one of the objectives of the Third Plan was to bring about reduction in disparity of income and wealth and a more even distribution of economic power. Special funds were allocated to prepare development plans for metropolitan towns, port cities, rapidly growing industrial centres and tourist places. Establishment of multipurpose projects and public sector enterprieses were also envisaged during this plan. Following are some of the important regions taken up during this plan:

1. Damodar Valley Region
2. The Rihand Region
3. Dandkaranya Region
4. The Bhakar-Nangal Region
5. Command are of Rajasthan Canal (Northern Rajasthan)

Fourth Plan: During this plan, concerns about regional imbalances were sought to be addressed through regional approaches involving extension of central help to states and formulation of policies to be based on regional requirements. Unrestrained urban growth was sought to be chekced through regional approach master plans for large cities and other urban development projects were envisaged.

Fifth Plan: Most remarkable regional development policy of this plan was the introduction of special programmes including the area development programmes. The measures introduced during the Fourth Plan continued and even enlarged during the Fifth Plan. Mitigation of industrial backwardness, agricultural improvement in specific pockets and water resource development in various spatial units were the aims of these programmes. Other plans included the development of civic amenities in urban areas, enlargement of scope of public sector enterprises, slum improvement and special attention on metropolitan cities.

Sixth Plan: During this plan programmes of technology upgradation and technology transfer were initiated to strengthen the resource base of the region stress was given to multi-level planning and a target group approach was initiated. Various programmes were launched, most important being IRDP.

Seventh Plan: This plan attempted to focus on regional issues by ensuring the minimum needs of the people through the use of local resources. Special programmes like Jawahar Rozgar Yojna were initiated in addition to the already existing programmes.

Eighth Plan: Adequate protection was envisaged for the weaker sections and for regions lagging behind through ensuring food supply, effective public distribution system, employment generation schemes and increasing outlay for special area programmes.

Ninth Plan: The plan document, underlining the importance of planned intervention in ensuring balanced regional development, seeks to achieve it through greater freedom and choice of location of industries. However in the era of liberalisation and privatisation, the private investment would tend to concentrate in those areas where infrastructure facilities exist. So, there is fear that poor regions will continue to lag behind. It is in this respect the role of government becomes important.

In the Tenth Plan period, following are the salient features of policy guiding regional development:

1. An inter-regional allocation policy tilted in favour of backward states.
2. Increased role of government in facilitating the development of infrastructure in poor regions.
3. Indicative planning approach is to continue.
4. An incentive policy to attract investment in backward regions.

Answer : Dry land areas are those parts of the country which receive 75 cm to 100 cm rainfall (therefore face moisture deficiency for 2/3 part of the year) and those semi-arid parts which receive 30-75 cm rainfall (therefore, face moisture deficiency throughout the year). Such areas cover Punjab, Haryana, South-western Uttar Pradesh, Western Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, interior regions of Maharashtra, rain shadow areas of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.

Besides low rainfall, these dry regions face uncertainty in terms of failure of rainfall, late on set, early withdrawal or long dry spells between two wet spells. Dry areas basically belong to fragile, high risking and low productive agricultural eco- system.

To solve the problems of such a large dry areas and to facilitate developmental activities, the government is endeavouring since independence. Many multipurpose projects were undertaken whose one of major objectives was to provide irrigation facilitity to dry regions also.

1. Drought Prone Area Programme: It was launched as an integrated area development programme in 1973. The programme is taken up as a long term measure to restore ecological balance by conserving, developing and harnessing land, water, livestock and human resources. The programme is now under implementation in 961 blocks in 180 districts in 16 states.
2. Desert Development Programme: This programme was started in 1977-79 in both hot deserts of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Haryana and cold deserts of J & K and Himachal Pradesh and later extended to some districts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Plantation of shlter belts, adoption of water harvesting techniques and development of pastures to sustain the livestock economy are some of the strategies followed under the programme. At present, there are 5333 watershed projects in seven programme states, from which 26.8 lakh hactare land are expected to benefit.
3. National Watershed Development Project For Rainfed Areas (NWDPRA): This programme was launched in 1990-91 in 25 states and two U.Ts, restructured during Eight Plan and continued in the Ninth Plan. Emphasis is put on:
   1. Conservation, upgradation and utilisation of natural endowments like land, water, plants and animals and human resources in a harmonious and integrated manner.
   2. Generating employment opportunities.
   3. Reducing disparity between irrigated and rainfed areas. The NWDPRA covered 43 lakh hectare of land during Eighth Plan. The Ninth Plan aims at developing 22.5 lakh hectares of land under the project. The programme is being implemented through decentralised planning and community participation with the help of Mitra Kisans and Gopals.
4. Watershed Development Fund: A Watershed Development Fund has been set up under NABARD. The objective is to undertake Integrated Watershed Development Programme with community participation in 100 districts selected on the basis of priority. A sum of 200 crore has been deposited with the Fund.
5. Many programmes have been introduced for the development of agriculture in the dry areas. This involves the identification of 46.9 micro-watersheds for comprehensive and systematic development covering an area of about 35,45,000 hectares. The programme contents include:
   1. Scientific management of rain water.
   2. Use of improved seeds of drought resistant variety.
   3. Plantation of forest and trees.
   4. Development of animal husbandry and allied activities.
6. A pilot project for watershed development in dry land areas have been taken up with the assistance of World Bank. The project envisages the development of identified watersheds of about 25,000-30,000 ha. area in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. A comprehensive Kandi watershed project has been launched in Punjab with the assistance of World Bank.
7. Under dry farming programme, crops like maize, sunflower, soyabean, mustard etc. requiring less moisture are being promoted in rain shadow areas of Karnataka.
8. Agro-forestry, agri-horticulture and silvipasture are other programmes initiated by the government for alternative land use system in dry areas.

Answer : A river basin is regarded as a natural unit for regional planning. The river basin planning approach is based on water induced development, where better water management is expected to stimulate development process in rest of the economy. Damodar river valley is the first river basin of the counrty selected for regional planning.

The river Damodar is a tributary of the Hugli river and flows across Jharkhand and West Bengal for about 541 km. Its basin occupies a total area of 24,235 sq km drained by the Damodar and its tributaries like Barakar, Konar, Bokaro, Jamunia, etc. The Damodar river was termed as ‘River of Sorrow’ or ‘Sorrow of Bengal’ because of devastating floods, it used to cause in the region. The sediments brought by this river endangers the Kolkata port. In order to solve these problems and utilize the wasted water of the Damodar river, the Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC) was constituted in 1948 by an act of Parliament on the pattern of Tennessee Valley Corporation of the USA. The project envisaged the construction of 7 major dams at:

1. Aiyar and Panchet Hill on the Damodar river
2. Maithon, Belapahari and Tilaiya on the Barakar river.
3. Konar on the Konar river.
4. Bokaro on the Bokaro river.

Damodar Valley Project is a multipurpose project with following statutory functions:

1. Promotion and operation of schemes of irrigation.
2. Generation, transmission and distribution of electrical energy.
3. Flood control.
4. Promotion of navigation and afforestation
5. Control of soil erosion.
6. Promotion of public health, agricultural, industrial and general well-being of the poeple in the basin areas.

So far, following four dams have been constructed, as shown in the figure given here:

Tilaiya Dam provides irrigation facilities to about 40,000 hectares of cropland. Two power houses of 2000 kw, each have also been set up here. Konar Dam has a power house with total installed capacity of 10 megawatts. Besides providing irrigation facilities to 45,000 hectares of land, it supplies hydel power to steel plant and clean water to Bokaro thermal power plant. Maithon Dam’s power house generates 60 MW of power, which is supplied to the Indian Copper and Aluminium Corporations. Panchet Hill Dam provids irrigation facility to about 28 lakh hectares of cropland, its power house generates 40 MW of power. Durgapur Barrage is located near Raniganj, this barrage has been constructed for the storage of irrigation water.

Benefits from the projects :

1. Flood control in the flood-prone areas of Jharkhand, Bihar and West Bengal.
2. Irrigation facilities to about 5.15 lakh hectares of agricultural land.
3. Generation of about 2,60,000 kw of hydel power.
4. Controlling soil erosion through regulated flow of water.
5. Additional land reclamation for agriculture.
6. Navigation in the Damodar river and its tributaries.
7. Promotion of public health through control of Malaria and other diseases.
8. Encouragement of fishing in the reservoirs and other water bodies.
9. Promotion of tourism.
10. Promotion of industrial development in the region.

Some of the developmental experience of this regional planning is being discussed in detail:

Soil Conservation and Afforestation: The DVC has been entrusted with the task of soil conservation and afforestation. The problem of soil erosion is being tackled on watershed basis. The soil conservation measures include survey of soils, demonstration of better methods of land management and assessing the soil fertility.

Afforestation within the catchment area of Damodar Valley is being carried out by the forest division of the corporation as well as forest departments of concerned states.

Thermal Power: There is a plan to set up 7 thermal power stations. Of these, three power stations at Chandrapura, Bokaro and Durgapur have already been completed generating 1545 MW of power.

Economic Development: Damodar valley is rich in mineral, forest and agricultural resources. The Chhotanagpur plateau area abounding in coal, iron ore, bauxite, copper, mica, manganese, graphite, etc. is known as mineral heartland of India. 40% of the area is under forest providing various forest products. However, the agricultural productivity is low.

The region’s natural resources provided sound base for rapid industrial development. Power and other infrastructural facitlities were developed mainly under the D.V.C. A number of industries sprang up in the region, for example, Durgapur and Bokaro steel complexes, H.E.C. at Ranchi, Sindri Fertilizers Plant, etc. Six industrial complexes have emerged in the region (i) Durgapur industrial complex; (ii) Aasansol-Kulti-Burnpur complex; (ii) Dhanbad-Sindri-Jharia complex; (iv) Bokaro industrial area; (v) Ramgarh-Patratu area; and (vi) Ranchi Industrial township. With the availability of more hydel power and thermal power, more industries are coming.

The Problems: The major objective of flood control has not been fully realised. Floods do occur though with lesser ferocity. The over utilisation of forest and inadequate afforestation have aggravated the problem of siltation in the dams. Adequate power is still lacking. Management problems also exist. Despite these odds, D.V.C. is an important example of integrated regional development.

Answer : The co-existence of relatively developed and under developed states and even regions within states is known as regional disparities. Regional disparities may occur due to two reasons. Firstly, it may be because of non-development, i.e. where developmental works are not undertaken, the region lags behind in economic development. Secondly, it may occur as a by product of development. For instance, per capita income at the current price of 2000-01 varies at a large scale, like in Punjab it is Rs. 25,048, in Maharashtra it is 23,726, in Tamil Nadu it is Rs. 19,889, in UP it is Rs. 9,721, while in Bihar it is only Rs. 5,108.

Causes: The study conducted under Planning Commission has brought out three major causes of economic backwardness in the country:

1. The result of past historical neglect, leading to the typical ‘by passed areas’ in development.
2. The result of some factor endowments, i.e. some intensive disadvantages in natural resource potentials, such as adverse climate, terrain conditions, poor soils or lack of surface water etc.
3. It is the result of social backwardness in area inhabited by tribals, marginalised groups and opressed communities.

It has been observed in many cases that economic activity gets started at some particular places (because of political, social or other considerations) and then economic and industrial activity tends to concentrate around that place. In case of India, such historical factors have proved to be more important than the natural ones.

India remained under foreign domination for a considerable period of time. Britisher’s attempt was to hamper and supress the growth of indigenous industries (as would be clear from the decline of handicrafts under British rule) and force them to become suppliers of important primary goods. This resulted in the creation of enclaves of development. Since, these enclaves had the advantage of an early start, they became centres of economic activity in due course of time. Once these areas around port towns of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras got an early start, there occured a constant stream of inflow of labour, educated people, entrepreneurs and capital to these region and a cycle of development started.

Period after Independence: When the era of planned development began in 1951, there were already a certain level of regional disparity in India. The effort at planning had to be based on a pattern which existed then.

The First Five Year Plan emphasised the urgent need to increase production. This meant taking up grandiose schemes which would give quick results. The second F.Y.P. emphasised the objective of establishing a ‘Sociolistic’ pattern of society, which was adopted by Parliament in 1954. The plan had one of its objectives as “the reduction of inequalities in income and wealth and a more even distribution of economic power”. This refers to only more equitable distribution of income among the people. The question of special differences in economic activity was not considered in the first two plans.

The Third F.Y.P. devoted a chapter on “Balanced Regional Development” (chapter IX) and stated that it could be achieved by a widespread dispersal of econmic activity. There are however, inherent problems in implementing widespread dispersal of economic activity in the early stages of economic development. Emphasizing regional balances too early in the development process will mean spill over of scarce resources in a number of regions leading to econmic backwardness of all of them. Thus the Third Plan set ‘balanced regional development’ as a long term goal.

The Fourth and Fifth Plan saw the initiation and continuation of many special programmes such as DPAP, CADP, ITDP etc. The Sixth Plan was centred around the objectives of removal of poverty, system approach, employment generation programmes (NREP, IRDP, etc.), etc. The Seventh Plan made only a strong reference to regional balance and pious wishes expressed in Eighth Plan regarding balanced development had very little practical significance.

Failure of Planning:

1. Really speaking, the planning mechanism has itself accentuated the disparity between the states by alloting high per capita plan outlays to more developed states like Punjab, Haryana, etc, right from first plan onwards.



2. The successful implementation of Green Revolution in North-Western states solved the problem of food shortage in the country, but it has also aggravated regional disparities.
3. The policy of locating industries in backward region has not provided ‘Spread Effects’ due to lack of infrastructural facilities like transport power, communication, etc (e.g. Chhota­nagpur plateau)
4. Most of area development programmes are specially meant for some specific categories of areas like drought prone, hilly tribal, etc., which do not cover all backward areas. Moreover, by identifying backward regions in all states due to political compulsions, the genuinely backward areas may get discriminated against.
5. One basic reason for widening disparities is that richer states refuse to transfer some of their resources to poorer states.
6. On the other hand, poorer states rely too much on the flow of resources from the Central Government and do not resort much to self-effort and self-help. Besides, there also occurs some wastage and under utilisation of allocated resources in these states.
7. Till Fifth Plan, integrated approach was lacking in area development programmes. It was only in Sixth Plan that integrated rural development strategy attempted to remove this weakness.
8. India has largely followed centralised planning which is not very effective in removing regional disparities.
9. States like Punjab, Haryana and Tamil Nadu have encouraged private sector entrepreneurs to set up industrial ventures by offering them many incentives. But the poor states have failed to do so.

Answer : In order to ensure faster and better utilisation of irrigation, water available from multipurpose projects shown in the figure given below, the centrally sponsored Command Area Development Programme was launched in the beginning of the Fifth Plan period.

The programme involves execution of on farm development works like construction of field channels and field drains, land levelling and shaping and conjunctive use of surface and ground water. Other items of work are warabandi or rotational system of water distribution, supply of agricultural inputs, credit for agricultural practices, improvement in the facilities of roads, markets, godowns, etc and demonstration and training of farmers to disseminate technical know-how. The main object of this programme is to increase agricultural productivity through optimum use of existing facilities.

The CAD programme was initially introduced in the Indira Gandhi Canal Command Area, as shown in the given figure, in 1974. This programme has helped in bringing the land under irrigation rapidly, increase in water use efficiency and agricultural productivity.

During the Seventh Plan, more emphasis was laid on improving water management and water delivery system. The provision of field drains reduced inadequate irrigation and over irrigation and resultant accumulation of salt in the soil, as shown in the map.

During the Ninth Plan, thrust has been given on:

1. Participatory irrigation management in the Command Area.
2. Creating awareness and providing training and technical know-how to farmers for establishing suitable cropping techniques and for maintaining soil health.
3. Better management of waterlogged areas.

Reclamation of waterlogged areas in irrigated commands is also an important component of the programme.

Thus, CADP is an integrated area development approach towards the command areas of major and medium irrigation projects. Since, the irrigation potential created by multipurpose projects is not properly utilised and the problem of water logging and salinity also occurs in the project regions, introduction of CADP becomes essential in respect of multi-purpose projects. Up to March 2001, there were 236 projects under this programme with culturable command area of 22.72 million hactares spreading over 28 states and 2 U.Ts..

Answer : Droughts in India are closely and intricately linked with the vagaries of monsoon. Droughts are more frequent in areas of low (below 60 cm) and variable rainfall (variability above 40%), where irrigation fcilities are not well-developed.

Three types of drought prone areas are identified taking the combined effect of intensity and periodicity of rainfall, ground water potential and agricultural production.

1. Extreme drought-prone areas—western Rajasthan and Gujarat, adjoining parts of western UP & North-Western - MP.
2. Severe drought-prone areas—Leeward side of Karnataka plateau, Rayalseema and Telangana region of Andhra Pradesh, Marathwada and Vidarbha of Maharashtra, Kalahandi of Orissa & M.P.
3. Moderate drought-prone areas—Adjoining regions of severe drought prone areas occuring in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and parts of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand and Orissa.

Measures: Two types of measures are taken for the development of drought prone areas—short term and long term. Short term measures include: (i) Making provision for supply of fodder (ii) Provision for drinking water supply (iii) Food for work programme.

Long term measures for the development of drought-prone areas include:

1. Rainwater harvesting and its judicious utilisation.
2. Conjunctive use of rainwater, surface & ground water.
3. Encouraging the use of drip and sprinkler irrigation.
4. Thrust has been given on installing specific minor irrigation works as Johad (Rajasthan), anicuts, tanks etc.
5. Animal husbandry as an alternate economy.
6. Irrigation facilities have been developed in the drought affected areas such as Punjab, Haryana, Western Rajasthan (Indira Gandhi Canal). More irrigation potential should be created through viable projects.
7. Afforestation programmes such as social and farm forestry with people’s participation.
8. Special hybrid/genetically modified seeds have been made available for drought prone areas, such as:
   Cotton — PRS-72; Tur — AC-5; Mung — Pusa, Baisakhi, etc.
9. Developing cottage and household industries.
10. Alternate sources of energy—solar, wind, bio-gas, etc.
11. Suitable cropping pattern and crop rotation has been encouraged for drought-prone areas.
12. National Watershed Development Programme has been started in the 8th Plan.
13. Devices of remote sensing, satellite mapping and GIS may be used for identifying groundwater potential.
14. Encouraging People’s initiatives, such as ‘Pani Panchayat’ in Maharstra and ‘Sukhmajri’ in Haryana.

Answer : A region is a perceived segment of space differentiated from others on the basis of one or more defining characteristics and the basic criterion in the limitation of region seems to be relative uniformity or homogeneity of geographical phenomena over space.

Regional disparity is said to occur when one region shows greater development on economic and human indexes while the others look laggards. This lopsided development takes place primarily for two reasons.

The physical/geographical causes will include the better climatic conditions, soil fertility, even slope and terrain, isotropic surface, etc. The non physical will include history of development, government policy, socio-cultural condition, demographic attributes, education, etc. Within India, such physical and non-physical conditions have existed, thus the regional disparity has taken a blown up slope. We can classify India into different regions based on their economic development. This could be best done in accordance with the natural resource and population distribution ratios.

The better developed areas are:

1. The Green Revolution areas : Like Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan (only Ganganagar district) and West UP, where agriculture is surplus, thus profitable.
2. The Metropolis : The region around Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai, etc. due to high level of urbanisation and economic activities in the territory and quaternary sectors.
3. The Industrial regions : The Kolkata-Hoogali region, the Mumbai-Pune region, Delhi and adjacent, Coimbatore-Bangalore region, Gujarat plains etc. are other pockets of high development, due to growth of industrial sector.
4. State capitals and minor industrial centres : Like Lucknow, Kanpur, Salem, Madurai, Bhopal, Jaipur, Hyderabad, etc.

On the other, hand we have many backward regions. There are not only inter-state disparity but also intrastate disparity. Inter-state disparity is seen in the development of Punjab, Haryana, Tamil Nadu on one hand, and Bihar, Orissa, MP, UP on the other hand. It can be seen within state boundaries also. For example, within Maharashtra, Western Maharashtra is quite developed, while Vidarbha and Khandesh region remians poor and backward.

A planning region is a segment of territory over which economic decisions apply. The term planning means taking decision to implement them in order to attain economic development. Our centralised planning mechanism was not bereft of loopholes. Decentralised planning is aimed at working out rational solution to economic problems by coordinating means and the ends. It takes into account the balanced development of meso and micro level regions in order to reduce economic disparity.

From sectoral and centralised planning, we moved towards much broad-based decentralisation in 1972, when planning machinery at state level was launched and guidelines for district plans were issued in 1969. Block level planning was introduced during the plan period 1978-83 which aimed at complementing rural development efforts, through better utilisation of local resources. This provided the experience of planning from below and thus planning at the lower order spatial units become a major component of regional planning. The hierarchy is thus:

Centre/State/Districts: The Dantewala working group on block level planning and Ashok Mehta committee on Panchayati Raj institutions, recommended planning at Block level also. But for this purpose, economically viable units and growth centres have to be chosen. The decentralised planning will lead to the empowerment of the local people.

Hence, every village and Block can meet its developmental need, so vital for the removal of regional disparity.

Answer : In India, about 75% of the cultivable landdepends on in situe rainfall which contribute only 50% of the national procuction. Production from unfavourable area can be stabilized or even improved by reducing run off to conserve more water or by supplementary irrigation. Watershed development can be an effective approach in this regard.

The model of watershed development is an agreeable measure to achieve sustainable development. Watershed development approach is basically driven by the concern of balancing excesses of man–made interventions on natural resources, as part of the livelihood process. Such natural resources primarily included land and water system in this context.

The river system is hierarchical. The ridge acts as a water divide, meaning that the rainwater diverges from here in two or more directions following land slopes. The rainfall draining the uplands follow slopes to converge into small gullies and streams which, in turn, meets large tributaries and finally, the main river course. Any of the constituents of a river – a tributary, a stream or a gully – has a defined catchment. This catchment area of the drainage system, i.e. the area within the ridges is defined as the watershed. The whole system of stream and sub streams of one river is called as its watershed area.

Watershed is a smaller geographical unit ofa river system. The river system and its total catchment have a hierarchical relationship with its smaller watershed units.

It is important to bear in mind while formulating strategies and plans that a smaller watershed is a contituent of the bigger river system in the hierarchical stream order,hence some of the characterestics can alwasys be read from the larger unit of the system. For certain practical advantages one may concentrate on watersheds as small as 300 to 500 hectaters, the master plan or strategies for its development must be worked out together with adjacent watersheds that would consitute the watershed of a higher order. The Government of India has identified the smallest watershed up to the sizeof 50 hactares.

The Indian Government has accorded high priority to the holestic and sustainable development of rainfed land areas through integrated watershed development approach. The objectives are:

1. Conservation of rain water and optimisationof soil and water resources in a sustainable and cost-effective mode
2. To develop the areas in terms of its resources, potentials and upliftment of local community.
3. To protect and enhance the water resources in a drainage basin for irrigation, power, drinking water,settlement, fisheries pasture development, community forest development and wild life preservation.
4. To conserve soil and water in agricultural fields, pastures, forests and other lands.
5. To sustain ecosystem development and to conserve and improve the orverall ecosystem of the area.

Watershed management is thus a holistic development concept that encompasses land, water, agriculture, forestry and all related matters in relation with the people who inhabit the area and their socio–cultural system.

A landscape watershed may constitute a simple or complex agro–ecologies.It may be made up of an upland ecology or a combination of upland lowland ecosystems. Each ecosystem in such a complex has its distinct function and land use capacity. The extreme upland parts of a river system, drained by the minor streams remain deprived in many ways. Forthese areas, both land and water resources are fragile. Surface and ground water does not stay here much longer beyond monsoon dueto high land slopes. Soil thickness is generally limited and agriculture in not intensive. The upland part represents dryland rainfed agro–ecology and acts as a catchment flow regulator areafor water to lowlands. The low lands mainly used for the cultivation of paddy are a not consumer of water. In a watershed approach, there is scope to view the water resource regime in totality. Such aunified natural unit has inmense utility in the land management.

The broad components of the management of land resource are the following:

1. Prevention of soil erosion.
2. Reclamation ofswamps, marshes, ravines and the de–forested lands.
3. Scientific land management practices consistent with land capability.
4. Intergrated soil and moisture conservation.
5. Arresting land degradation and improving its quality.

It has already been discussed, the objectives of watershed development are almost the same. A watershed becomes a suitable or ideal unit for land management practices since watershed is a geographic-hydrologic landscape unit. Its framework provides inter-ecological linkages and a logical natural unit for the integration of thesustainable use of land and water. It helps in augmenting soil and groundwater resources. It joins the biophysical social and economic inputs which when optinally managed lead to diversified agricultural production, control the environmental degradation and help in the recharging of ground water aquifers.

In the watershed develpment approach, each watershed is regarded as a unique ecosystem. Such a frame work facilitates,the proper assessment of the problems of the land resources in the watershed. It also helps in identifying exact measures to improve the land resource quality as each watershed has its distinct land use capacity.

In a watershed, the plateau-top, highland and midland slopes together make the recharge area forthe ground water that can be tapped in the low–lying plains. upland is thus an area for water harvesting, midland an area for small dams and lowland for tapping ground water source. generally upland areas have the potential for horticulture and livestock development. Midland often provides a good ambient for dry land agriculture. The watershed option affers a number of such choices for the management of the land resources.

Answer : Hill stations are the cool places of tourist attractions on high elevation in a mountainous or plateau region. The development of hill stations has been the product of colonial period in India. Existence of lofty mountains of Himalayas in the northern part of India has presented many sites for the development of hill stations. Consequently, many hill stations having an average elevation of 1500-2000 metres above mean sea level have emerged on the Himalayan ranges spread over the states of Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Jammu & Kashmir, West Bengal and thestates of North–East India. Shimla, the famous hill station and capital of Himachal Pradesh is situated on the Dhauladhar range of Middle Himalaya. Dalhousie,Kullu–Manali, Chamba, etc. are other hill stations in Himachal Pradesh. Dehradun, Mussorie, Nainital etc are hill stations in Uttaranchal while Onmerg, Gulmerg, Pahalgam, Amarnath, etc. are in J&K. Darjeeling in W. Bengal and Gangtok in Sikkim are noted hill stations. There are many hill stations in North–East.

Mount Abu is a famous hill station on the Aravalli ranges while Panchmarhi is situated on the Satpura-Mahadeo-Maikal ranges. Maha-baleshwar is a hilly town in the Western Ghat highland region. Ooty is an important hill station and tourist spot of South India which is situated on the Nilgiri hills. Another hill station Kodaikanal is located on the palni hills.

Answer : A planning process can be either single level or multi level. The concept of multi level planning may be defined as planning for a variety of regions which together form a system and subordinate Subsystems. In this planning, the National Territory is devided into small territorial units whose numbers depend upon the size of the country, its administrative geographical and regional structure. Here Lower level planning provides bases for higher level planning. Likewise higher level regional plans provide frame work for lower level areal plans.

Following six operationalising principle have been suggested for devising necessary mechanisms and procedures for frequent interaction with the participating levels.

1. The principle function - sharing
2. The principle of financial decentralization
3. The principle of administrative decentralization
4. The principle of public participation
5. The Iteration principle or the relay-re-relay process
6. The principle of nesting and integration of plans

The concept of multi level planning has many inherent advantages, such as:

1. The planning at regional unit level will make it more successful and reduce the gap between targets and achievements.
2. It can take into account local wisedom, local needs, local resource and traditional skill developed through generations.
3. Better supervision co-ordination, monitoring and evaluation can be achieved at local levels.
4. It can check draining away of resources for unproductive purposes and thus lead to better resource management.
5. The absence of multilevel planning in India was an important reason for regional disparities in socia-econimic development in the country.
6. The diversity existing in topographic soil agro-climatic conditions and socio-economic institutions in the country make the concept of multilevel planning more suitable for India.

Multi-level planning is very significant for our country as it re-asserts the unity of India and is a basic bulwark against divisive forces.

Answer : In the multi level planning, the national territory is divided into small territorial units, their numbers depending upon the size of the country, its administrative geographical and regional structure. The concept of multi-level planning may be defined as planning for a variety of regions which together form a system and subordinate sub-systems. Here lower level planning provides bases for higher level planning. Likewise higher level regional plans provide frame works for lower-level areal plans.

Following six operationalising principles have been suggested for devising necessary mechanisms and procedures for frequent interaction with the participating levels:

1. The principle of function-sharing
2. The principle of financial decentralization
3. The principle of administrative decentra­lization
4. The principle of public participation
5. The Iteration principle or the relay-re-relay process
6. The principle of nesting and integration of plans.

Utility

1. It can take into account local wisdom, local needs, local resources and local skill.
2. Planning at regional unit level will make it more successful and reduce the gap between targets and achievements.
3. It can check the draining away of resources for unproductive purposes and thus lead to better resources management.
4. Better human resource planning can be attempted at regional and multi-levels.
5. Better supervision, co-ordination, monitoring and evaluation can be achieved at local levels.
6. Popular participation increases a sense of awareness and association with national mainstream.
7. The absence of multi-level planning was an important reason why a sizeable chunk of the rural population remained largely underdeveloped by the process of development.
8. Close linkages through appropriately located infrastructural investment could be best secured only by local participation in the development process.
9. Multi-level planning can also promote diffusion of knowledge and technique for rural development, e.g. better utilisation of energy. This is possible only when associated agencies work in close association with village communities.
10. The problem posed by private ownership of land fragmentation of holdings and distribution of available water are so complex that it requires multi-level planning.
11. Indian Physiography has varying soil topography and agro-climatic conditions. Multi level planning grants flexibility to take care of such variations.
12. Multi level planning is also important as it provides feedback to planners and make planning more rational and effective.
    • Multi-level planning is very significant in the Indian context. Such a planning reasserts the unity of India and is a basic bulwork against divisive forces.

Answer : River basin includes the area drained by the main river and its tributaries. It is an appropriate physically and socially integrated region and may be used as an ideal unit of planning.

The concept of river basin planning is not new. The oldest recorded practice of irrigated agriculture has been traced in Tericho in 7000 B.C. Ancient texts found in China, Egypt and Iraq indicate the remarkably sound knowledge about the hydrological cycle, ecological balance between surface and ground water and engineering and social aspects of river basins, Administrative units are generally taken as planning units because of political realities, availability of data and implementation machinery for development plans. Phillipe Buache, in 1952 was the first French scholar to critize the method of representation of population, economic and other data in the administrative units. We advocated that he right approach for representation of geographical data is in the grame of natural region. According to him river basin was the best kind of natural region.

Even erstwhile geopolitical consideration that physical features like rivers exert barrier influence and hence could serve as boundary between two regions has been redenred obsolete. River basins generally tend to exert a unifying rather than a separating influence, since rivers and their valleys provide lines of movements that promote social and commercial intercourse. River basins generally consist of fertile alluvial plains supporting dense populations. This gives rise to settled communities and efficient water utilisation and management.

Modern river basin planning is an American innovation. Regulation of irrigation in the arid west was suggested to be undertaken on the basis of a natural unit of a river basin. Tennesee Valley Authority (TVA) was established by US govt. in 1933 to create a regional agency which would carry out a programme of interrelated and ecologically bound activities for achiving economic development and social justice in a depressed region. Thereafter a number of inter state contracts for unified development of river basins have been signed resulting in a number of inter-state River Basin Commissions, most notable being the New England River Basin Commission.

In India, eminent scientist Meghnath Saha made a strong plea for systematic study of all the river basins so that programmes could be devised to serve as instruments for revitalising agricultural and initiating industrialisation. Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC)was first such experiment in river basn planning on the lines of TVA. Dams were constructed an Damodar river and its tibutaries which involved the states of erstwhile Bihar & West Bengal leading to flood control, power generation, soil conservation, irrigation, water supply, inland water supply, inland water manifation and promotion of public health and agricultural, industrial, economic and general well being of Damodar valley and its area of operation.

River basins differ in their size and potentialities. Hence separate basin plans are needed for different basins. The plan should be reviewed from time to time and necessary modifications incorporated.

But river basin planning, where it involves other countries requires international Co-operation which may not be forthcoming. Within country states fight each other to have greater share of water from inter-state rivers, so bringing whole basin under single authority requires great determination. Many river basins are very large exhibiting great variation in climate, physiography, social conditions and economic development. Here same plan does not seem viable. On the other hand, some basins are two small to become an ideal unit of planning. Thus there are potentialities as well as difficulties involves in adopting river basin as a unit of planning.

Answer : Block is a unit of planning and administration below district and above village created for the first time during First Five Year Plan to supervise the implementation of development plans under the Community Development Programme M.L. Dantwala Working Group on Block Level Planning appointed by Government in 1977 felt that block is a relevant unit of planning because it is distinguished by a certain community of interest and is sufficiently small in terms of area and population to enable intimate contact and understanding between the planners, the authorities entrusted with the task of implementation, and the people. Because of these characteristics of Block Level Planning (BPL), it is beneficial in:

1. understanding more clearly the felt needs of the people and factors inhibiting the uplift of weaker section;
2. ascertaining area specific physical and human resource potential;
3. identifying constraints inhibiting socio-economic and technological growth; and
4. expanding the area of people's participation in the preparation and implementation of plans.

However BLP has not been successful. It's basic task of elimination of poverty and unemployment has remained unfulfilled the whole process has been hijacked by richer and influential sections and local leadership and the targeted weaker, poor groups and those belonging to SCs, STs and OBCs who were meant to be main beneficiaries have remained powerless and resourceless.

Answer : Government of India has specified some 550 communities in the schedule of tribes. According to 1991 census tribals have a population of 67.7m (8.08% of total population of India). Geographically, they exhibit concentrations in three broad zones—north-eastern hills & forested areas; hills and forest stretches in central India extending from east to west; and in the island chains particularly Andaman & Nicobar islands. Tribal development programmes are designed keeping in mind their specific characteristics like their habitat; cultural traits like language, beliefs, customs and institutions; low level of techno-economic development; and non-hierarchie and undifferentiated character of their society. Tribal development programmes adopt micro-regional approach owing to unique problems and development needs of tribal areas.

Tribal development blocks (TDBs) were established in areas predominantly inhabited by tribals an the lines of community development blocks (CDBs). However, as tribal areas are sparsely populated each TDB was intended to cover only 25000 persons against 66,000 in CDB.

To encourage settled forms of agriculture, improve agriculture provide medical and public health service, improve communications, organise co-operatives, develop arts and crafts, establish community welfare centres multi-purpose pilot projects were started in second Five Year Plan (FYP).

In the Fourth FYP, area approach tribal development was adopted. Tribal Development Agency (TDA) projects were established in some tribal areas. TDA with district collector as chairman and project officer and other district officers was entrusted with the task of develping infrastructural base of area in respect of irrigation, land development communication, credit & marketing; and locating & developing growth centres.

Tribal development programme was given a new perspective in the form of tribal sub-plans in the Fifth Plan against the ad-hoc and piecemeal approach of earlier plans. Tribal areas and communities are at different levels of socio-economic development so there is no uniform solution to their variety of problems. Area-specific needs were emphasised in tribal sub-plans.

Dandakaranya comprising the Koraput and Kalahandi districts of Orissa and Bastar district of erstwhile Madhya Pradesh was a major effect in inter-state planning. Dandakaranya region is predominantly inhabited by tribals and largely forested. Dandakaranya Project (DP) was started to rehabilitate displaced persons from East Pakistan (non Bangladesh) after partition and to promote the welfare of local tribals. Dandakaranya Development Authority (DDA) with S.V. Ramamurthy (adviser to Planning Commission) at whose instance the DP was taken, as its chairman and other members was set up for the task, concerned state governments were to release land to DDA for reclamation and DDA in turn had to hand over 25% of reclaimed land for setting tribal people. DDA would also provide assistance to state governments for resettlement of uprooted tribals state governments would also keep back sufficient areas of forest lands for the current and future reserves and for the expansion of tribals; cultivated lands. Land reclamation has to take care of soil conservation and prevention of formation of gullies. Integrated development of area benefiting both tribals and refugees should include.

1. Eradication of diseases, esp. malaria.
2. Improvement of communication
3. Balanced utilisation of land.
4. Evolving second cropping pattern & agronomic practices.
5. Establishing large, medium, small scale and cottage & village industries.
6. Providing infrastructure0irrigation, transport, marketing and credit facilites, power, etc.
7. Developing allied activities to agriculture livestock, piscicultre, silviculture, etc.
8. Exploration and development of mineral resources, e.g. iron ore in Bailadila, limeston, etc.

For setting displaced refugees and tribals rural, urban and semi-urban settlement sites were selected, plots allocated to people and financial assistance given to erect homesteads. Agriculture plots in reclaimed land distributed to landless and agriculturists and assistance given to rest for starting business or trading acitvities. Gainful employment to selters in construction, reclamation, irrigation works, brick kilns, dairy units, etc. was provided for all round development medical, educational, technical and vocational training facilities were provided.

Answer : India has been divided into 13 macro planning regions and 35 meso-regions with further subdivisions of meso-regions into micro regions, though this is not a comprehensive list.

I.South Peninsular (incarporating Kerala and Tamil Nadu) with Coimbatore, Cochin & Chennai as prominent nodes.

1.Kerala economy centred around plantations, teak, coconut, thorium & hydro-potential.

2.Chennai-Coimbatore industries region-main industrial textile, sugar cane and oil seed crushing and mineral resources-Meyudi lignite, iron ore.

3.Tamil Nadu coastal plain: Agriculture in delta region, agro-industries, fisheries, tourism.

II.Central Peninsular (Karnataka, Goa & Andhra Pradesh except its northern part) containing Bangalore and Hyderabad metros.

4.Southern Karnataka: Forest hydropower, plantation, gold, engineering and aeronautical industries.

5.Northern Karnataka: Bellary-Mospet mining industries region based on iron ore, manganese bauxite and irrigated agriculture in Krishna valley.

6.Rayalaseema and adjoining coastal plain irrigated agriculture & light engineering.

7.Telengana & adjoining coastal plain centred around Nagarjuna sagar dam, coastal plain intensive cultivation food processing and tobacco industry and information technology industry of Hyderabad.

III.Western Peninsular centred around growth foci of Mumbai, Pune, Sholapur & Nasik. Hinterland of Mumbai part and metropolitan, fisheries, cotton, hyder and atomic power.

8.Middle Maharashtra (part of Deccan trap)

9.Coastal Maharashtra (Konkan coast & western ghat)

IV.Central Deccan (Eastern Maharashtra, Central and southern Madhya Pradesh)

10.Narmada valley region of MP hydro power potential, cotton processing

11.Khandesh-Berar region cotton, coal, iron; potential for ferrons and metallurgical industries.

V.Eastern peninsular (Orissa, Jharkhand, Chattishgarh, North-eastern Andhra Pradesh) adjoining districts of UP and WB)

12.Coastal Orissa & N.E. Andhra Pradesh-Mahanadi delta based agriculture, agroprocessing, fisheries, manganese.

13.Dandakaranya (S.W. Orissa) forest, iron ore.

14.Mahanadi Basin (Chattishgarh) Rice bowl, mineral based industries.

15.Son-valley region (western Jharkhand)-Rihand Dam and minerals of Chotanagpur.

16.Chotanagpur industrial region (eastern Jharkhand and adjoining W.B. Power and mineral resources engineering and chemical industries.

17.Brahamani industrial region (N.W. Orissa( Iron ore, metal based industries.

VI.Gujarat

18.Gujarat plain and hills region irrigated agriculture in lower Narmada and Tapi region, fisheries, petroleum and petrochemicals, cotton, jems and jewellery and city centres of Ahmedabad, Surat, Vadodara, Porbandar.

19.Kathiawar-Kachchh region-limestone, salt, cotton processing, livestock farming.

VII. Western Rajasthan

20.Desert region-Gypsum, limestone, lignite, great Rajasthan canal, prospects of petroleum & atomic power.

21.Semi-desert-livestock marble.

VIII Aravali region (eastern Rajasthan and western MP)

22.Kota industrial & Chambal valley region- hydel and atomic power and irrigated agriculture (Chambal project), limestone, non-ferrous metals.

23.Eastern Rajasthan (with city centres of Jaipur and Udaipur)-Non-ferous metals-lead & zinc (Udaipur) copper (Khetri), tourism.

IX.Jammu-Kashmir & Ladakh

24.J&K-forest horticulture, tourism.

25.Ladakh-forest horticulture.

X.Trans-Indo-Ganga plain & Hills (Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Uttranchal & western UP)

26. Bhakra Nangal Agro industrial region (Punjab, Haryana & HP) irrigated and highly intensive agriculture in Punjab Haryana plains-wheat, cotton, sugarcane & fodder crops); forestry and horticulture in HP; agro based industries, textiles and tourism.

27.Delhi, western UP, Uttaranchal-Wheat, sugarcane, horticulture, hydro power.

XI.Ganga-Yamuna plain of UP and northern districts of MP.

28.Kanpur-Agra industrial region-sugarcane, wheat, cotton, oilseeds, agro-based and light engineering industries.

29.Eastern UP and Baghelkhand region-sugarcane, wheat, agro-based industries, forest in MP.

XII. Lower Ganga plains (West Bengal and Bihar plains)

30. Bihar agro-industrial region-Rice, sugarcane, agro-based and petrochemical industries.

31. Kolkata-Hooghly industrial region-Rice, jute, proximity to power resources.

32. North Bengal plain-Rice cultivation, agro based industry.

XIII. North Eastern Region

33. Lower Brahmpurtra, Shillong Plateau region-Jute, Tea, horticulture produce, forest resource, silimanite.

34.Upper Brahmputra & Hill region (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam & Nagaland) Tea, petroleum, natural gas, petro-chemical industries.

35.Eastern Hill & Plain region (Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura) Tea, Jute & Forest based industry.

Metropolitan planning involves not only the city planning of urban centre (core region) concerned with organising intra-urban space but also ordering of activities in supra-urban space (peripheral region) as the two are functionally linked through flow of people, goods, services, etc. Metropolitan planning helps in regional development by correcting regional imbalances basically through (i) inter-regional trade (ii) transfer of surplus investible resources to backward regions (iii) attracting labour from labour-surplus areas and thus reducing pressure of population and consequently disguished and open unemployment.

India has not been able to realise full potential of metropolitan planning as the planning itself was ill-conceived and ad-hoc and did not incorporate regional variables. Though master plans for cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Kanpur, Ahmedabad, etc. were prepared the approach adopted was that of city planners for whom planning is basically physical concerned with land-use paterns, places to be devoted to residential, industrial, commercial, uses, etc. No attempt is made to study rural hinterland and the spatial interaction. Metro cities were not conceived of as highest links in the hierarchical chain of different settlements—villages—service towns—growth points (district headquarters)—growth centres (state capitals)—growth poles (megalopolises). Consequently these metro cities have worked as great suction pumps swallowing the growth potentials of vast rural hinterland, backward areas and lower order urban centres. They themselves have bcome victims of this unplanned growth as could be seen in over crowding, growth of slums and squatter settlements, congestion transport, growing social tension and deterioration of urban environment and quality of life.